Nuclear Reactions

Decisions about nuclear

energy require some
understanding of nuclear
reactions and the nature
of radioactivity. This is
one of the three units of
Palo Verde Nuclear
Generating Station in
Arizona. With all three
units running, enough
power is generated to
meet the electrical needs
of nearly 4 million
people.

 Natural Radioactivity

 Introduction
Henri Becquerel discovered radioactivity in 1896
Becquerel named the emission of invisible radiation
from uranium ore radioactivity.
Radioactive materials was the name given to materials
that gave off this invisible radiation.

 Radioactivity was discovered by Henri Becquerel when he

exposed a light-tight photographic plate to a radioactive
mineral, then developed the plate. (A) A photographic film
is exposed to an uranite ore sample. (B) The film, developed
normally after a four-day exposure to uranite. Becquerel
found an image like this one and deduced that the mineral
gave off invisible radiation that he called radioactivity.

 Ernest Rutherford later discovered that there were three

kinds of radioactivity.
Alpha particles () is a helium nucleus (2 protons
and 2 neutrons)
A beta particle () is a high energy electron
A gamma ray () is electromagnetic radiation with a
very short wavelength.

 Radiation passing through a magnetic field shows that

massive, positively charged alpha particles are deflected one
way, and less massive beta particles with their negative
charge are greatly deflected in the opposite direction.
Gamma rays, like light, are not deflected.

 Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of particles or

energy from an atomic nucleus as it disintegrates.
Radioactive decay is the spontaneous disintegration of
decomposition of a nucleus.

 Nuclear Equations
The two subatomic particles that occur in the nucleus, the
proton and the neutron, are called nucleons.
The number of protons is the atomic number which
determines the identity of the element.
The number of protons and neutrons determines the
atomic mass of the element.
Different isotopes of an element have the same atomic
number (same number of protons) but different atomic
masses (different number of neutrons)

 The three isotopes of hydrogen have the same number of

protons but different numbers of neutrons. Hydrogen-1 is
the most common isotope. Hydrogen-2, with an additional
neutron, is named deuterium, and hydrogen-3 is called
tritium. Neutrons and protons are called nucleons because
they are in the nucleus.

 Just like any other chemical reaction, we use

symbols to show a nuclear reaction
As an example, when uranium 238 emits an
alpha particle, it loses 2 protons and 2
neutrons.

U Th He

238
92

234
90

4
2

Nuclear reactions must balance just like any

other chemical reaction, but we must also be
aware of balancing protons and neutrons

 The Nature of the Nucleus.

Protons and neutrons are held together by a nuclear force
when they are very close together.
The shell model of the nucleus visualizes the protons and
neutrons moving on energy levels or shells, much like the
electrons move in shells.

 We can predict the stability of a nucleus by using some

simple rules
All isotopes heavier than atomic number 83 have an
unstable nucleus
Isotopes with 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, or 126 protons or
neutrons in their nucleus occur in the most stable
isotopes.
Nuclei are the most stable with pairs of protons and
neutrons, so those with all protons and all neutrons
paired up are the most stable.
Isotopes with an atomic number less that 83 are most
stable when the ratio of protons to neutrons is 1:1.

 The dots indicate

stable nuclei, which
group in a band of
stability according
to their neutron-toproton ratio. As the
size of nuclei
increases, so does
the neutron-toproton ratio that
represents stability.
Nuclei outside this
band of stability are
radioactive.

 Type of Radioactive Decay

4
Alpha emission
This is the expulsion of an alpha particle 2
Beta Emission
Emission of a beta particle
a beta particle is an electron that is ejected form the
nucleus
Gamma emission
This is a high energy burst of electromagnetic radiation
Emission occurs as nuclei try to obtain a balance between
nuclear attractions, electromagnetic repulsions, and a low
quantum of nuclear shell energy.

He

 Unstable nuclei
undergo different
types of radioactive
decay to obtain a
more stable nucleus.
The type of decay
depends, in general,
on the neutron-toproton ratio, as
shown.

 Radioactive Decay Series

Radioactive decay produces a simpler and more stable
nucleus.
A radioactive decay series occurs as a nucleus
disintegrates and achieves a more stable nuclei
There are 3 naturally occurring radioactive decay series.
Thorium 232 ending in lead 208
Uranium 235 ending in lead 207
Uranium 238 ending in lead 206

 The radioactive decay series for uranium-238. This

is one of three naturally occurring series.

 When there are a large number of nuclei the ration of the

rate of nuclear decay per unit time to the total number of
radioactive nuclei will be a constant
k=rate

n
The radioactive decay constant is specific for each
isotope

 The rate of radioactive decay is expressed in terms of

half-life
The half-life of an element is the time required from
one-half of its unstable nuclei to decay
The half-life of an element is related to the ration of
0.693 to its radioactive decay constant
t = 0.693/k
The decay constant for U238 is 4.87 X 10-18/s
The half life is therefore
t = 0.693/4.87 X 10-18/s = 1.42 X 1017s = 4.5 X
109 years
The half-life of U238 is 4.5 billion years.

 Radioactive decay of a hypothetical isotope with a half-life

of one day. The sample decays each day by one-half to some
other element. Actual half-lives may be in seconds, minutes,
or any time unit up to billions of years.

 The half-life of each step in the uranium-238

radioactive decay series.

 Measurement of Radiation

 Measurement Methods
Film badges
Workers who are exposed to radioactivity carry film
badges
The film is exposed and the optical density of the film
shows the workers exposure levels during the time the
film badge was worn.
Ionization counter.
Measure ions that are produced by radiation

 Scintillation counter.
Measures the flashes of light that occur when radiation
strikes a phosphor.
Geiger counter
Measures pulses of electrons released from the
ionization of gas molecules in a metal cylinder
Each pulse of electrons is heard as a pop or click

 This is a beta-gamma probe, which can measure beta

and gamma radiation in millirems per unit of time.

 The working parts of a Geiger counter.

 Radiation Units
Curie (Ci)
Measurement of the activity of a radioactive source.
Measured as the number of nuclear disintegrations per
unit of time
A curie is 3.70 X 1010 nuclear disintegrations per
second.

 Rad
Measures the amount of energy released by radiation
striking living tissue
Short for radiation absorbed dose
One rad releases 1 X 10-2 J/kg
Rem
Short for roetgen equivalent man
This takes into account the possible biological damage
to humans of certain types of radiation.

 Radiation Exposure
Background radiation is constantly present in our
environment.
Most people are exposed to between 100 to 500
millirems per year.
This background radiation comes from many natural
source.
The harm that radiation does to living organisms is due to
the fact that it produces ionization which can:
Disrupt chemical bonds in biological macromolecules
such as DNA
Produce molecular fragments which can interfere with
enzyme action and essential cell functions.

 The linear model of exposure proposes that any

exposure above zero is damaging and can produce cancer
and genetic damage, mostly through its effect on DNA
The threshold model proposes that there is a threshold
limit of exposure up to which the human body can repair
damage caused by the exposure
It is not until we reach and exceed this threshold that
we begin to see irreversible damage.

 Graphic representation of the (A) threshold model and (B)

linear model of low-level radiation exposure. The threshold
model proposes that the human body can repair damage up
to a threshold. The linear model proposes that any radiation
exposure is damaging.

 Nuclear Energy

 Introduction.
Albert Einstein showed us that energy and matter are the
same thing, both are inter-convertible.
E=mc2

Using mass losses during nuclear reactions, one can

calculate the energy change of a system.
E=mc2

There is a difference between the mass of the individual

nucleons that make up a nucleus and the actual mass of
the nucleus.
This is called the mass defect of the nucleus.
The mass defect occurs as energy is released when nucleons
join to form a nucleus.

 The energy that is released is called the binding energy.

This is also the energy that is required to break the
nucleus into its individual protons and neutrons.
The ratio of the binding energy to the nucleon number
is a measure of a nucleus stability
Massive nuclei can gain stability by breaking into
smaller nuclei with a release of energy.
Smaller nuclei can gain stability by joining together
with the release of energy.

 The maximum binding energy per nucleon occurs around

mass number 56, then decreases in both directions. As one
result, fission of massive nuclei and fusion of less massive
nuclei both release energy.

 Splitting massive nuclei apart with the release of energy

is called nuclear fission.
The joining together of less massive nuclei with the
release of energy is called nuclear fusion

 Nuclear Fission
As a nuclear reaction occurs, it has the ability to produce a
chain reaction
A chain reaction is a reaction where the products are
able to produce more products in a self-sustaining
reaction series.
In order to achieve a chain reaction there must be:
A sufficient mass.
A large concentration of fissionable nuclei
The critical mass is when the mass and concentration are
high enough to sustain a chain reaction.
A sub-critical mass is one that is too small to achieve a
chain reaction.

 The fission reaction occurring when a neutron is absorbed by a

uranium-235 nucleus. The deformed nucleus splits any number
of ways into lighter nuclei, releasing neutrons in the process.

 A schematic
representation of a
chain reaction. Each
fissioned nucleus
releases neutrons,
which move out to
fission other nuclei.
The number of
neutrons can
increase quickly
with each series.

 Nuclear Power Plants

The nuclear reactor contains the material and is the vessel
for the controlled chain reaction of fissionable materials
that will release the energy.
Usually there is a fissionable enriched material made of
3% U235 and 97% U238 the is fabricated into small
beads.
The beads are enclosed in a fuel rod.
The fuel rods are locked in a fuel rod assembly by locking
collars and arranged so that pressurized water can flow
around the rods.
Control rods are made of material that can absorb
neutrons and are inserted between the fuel rods.

 The rate of the chain reaction is controlled by raising or

lowering the control rod.
In a pressurized water reactor the energy is carried way from
the reactor by water in a closed pipe called a primary loop.
This water acts as a coolant and also as a moderator to
slow neutrons so they can more readily be absorbed by
the U235 nuclei.
The water from the primary loop is circulated to a heat
exchanger called a steam generator.
The water in the heat exchanger moves through hundreds
of small loops and heats the feedwater in the steam
generator.
The water then returns to the core to be heated again.

 A schematic representation of the basic parts of a nuclear

reactor. The largest commercial nuclear power plant reactors
are nine- to eleven-inch-thick steel vessels with a stainless
steel liner, standing about 40 feet high with a diameter of 16
feet. Such a reactor has four pumps, which move 440,000
gallons of water per minute through the primary loop.

 (A)These are uranium oxide fuel pellets that are stacked

inside fuel rods, which are then locked together in a fuel rod
assembly. (B) A fuel rod assembly.

 A schematic general system diagram of a

pressurized water nuclear power plant, not to scale.
The containment building is designed to withstand
an internal temperature of 300OF at a pressure of 60
lbs/in2 and still maintain its leak-tight integrity.

 Spent fuel rod assemblies are removed and new ones are added to a
reactor head during refueling. This shows an initial fuel load to a
reactor, which has the upper part removed and set aside for the
loading.

 The turbine deck of a nuclear generating station. There is

one large generator in line with four steam turbines in this
non-nuclear part of the plant. The large silver tanks are
separators that remove water from the steam after it has left
the high-pressure turbine and before it is recycled back into
the low-pressure turbines.

 The composition
of the nuclear fuel
in a fuel rod (A)
before and (B)
after use over a
three-year period
in a nuclear
reactor.

 Nuclear Fusion
Nuclear fusion is the source of the energy from the Sun
and other stars.
Fusion is a very desirable energy source as:
Two isotopes of hydrogen (deuterium and tritium)
undergo fusion at a relatively low temperature.
The supply of deuterium is unlimited with seawater
being a very large source
Enormous amounts of energy are released with no
radioactive byproducts.

 The problems with utilizing fusion as an energy source are:

Temperature.
The amount of energy required to bring two nuclei
together is enormous.
Density
The density of the reacting hydrogen nuclei must be
significantly high so that there are enough reactions
occurring in a short period of time.
time
These nuclei need to be confined to up to a second or
more at 10 atmospheres of pressure in order for
enough reactions to take place.

 A fusion reaction between a tritium nucleus and a

deuterium nucleus requires a certain temperature,
density, and time of containment to take place.

 Plasma.
A very hot gas consisting of atoms that have been
stripped of their electrons and utilized as a confining
mechanism
Inertial confinement
An attempt to heat and compress small frozen pellets
of deuterium and tritium with energetic laser beams or
particle beams, producing fusion.

 The Source of Nuclear Energy

When elements undergo the natural radioactive decay
process, energy is released and the decay products have
less energy than the reacting nucleus.
When massive nuclei undergo fission, a great deal of
energy is Released