Program Studi Pengelolaan Lingkungan

Program Pascasarjana Universitas Sriwijaya

Bahan Matrikulasi
Fisika (III): Fisika Inti
Oleh
Dedi Setiabudidaya

Program Studi Pengelolaan Lingkungan

Program Pascasarjana Universitas Sriwijaya

Periodic Table of the Elements

Program Studi Pengelolaan Lingkungan

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Some questions about the atom

What is an atom?
What are the parts of an atom?
How do we see the parts of the atom?
What is the structure of the atom?

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Atoms the historical view

The Greek Empedocle (around 492-432 BC.)
divided matter into four elements, that he also
called "roots": earth, air, fire and water
The word "atom" comes from the greek "atomos" and signifies "indivisible". This notion
was invented by Leucippe of Milet in 420 BC

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In ancient times, many elements were known, including

C, S, Cu, Ag, Au, Fe, Sn, Sb and Pb. The names of most
of these are from the Latin words.
From 1000-1869, about 50 additional elements were
discovered, many by alchemists, including As, Zn, P, Pt,
Ni, N, O, Cl and Al.
Mendeleyevs periodic table (1869) classified and sorted
elements based on common chemical properties. His
table had 62 known elements, and left space for 20
elements that were not yet discovered. The elements were
arranged in order of atomic number.

Program Studi Pengelolaan Lingkungan

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The electron was discovered in 1897 by Thomson. He

imagined the atom as a raisin pudding with electrons stuck
in a cake of positive charge

In 1912, Rutherford discovered the nucleus by doing

scattering experiments. He concluded the atom was mostly
empty space, with a large dense body at the center, and
electrons which orbited the nucleus like planets orbit the Sun

Rutherford also realized that the nucleus must contain both

neutral and positively charged particles. The neutron was
then discovered in 1932 by Chadwick.

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Following Rutherfords planetary model of the atom, it

was realized that the attraction between the electrons and
the protons should make the atom unstable
Bohr proposed a model in which the electrons would
stably occupy fixed orbits, as long as these orbits had
special quantized locations
In the Bohr model, the electron can change orbits,
accompanied by the absorption or emission of a photon of
a specific color of light.
Modern quantum theories lead to stable locations of
electrons, which are not exact planetary orbits, but are
characterized by specific quantum numbers.

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Each electron shell is

characterized by a
different principle
quantum number, usually
called n.

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In quantum theory, the electron shells are not fixed

orbits, but clouds of probability. You cant measure the
exact location of the electron.
Each electron orbital has a different shape, and no two
electrons can be in the same orbital (unless they have
opposite spins.)
The quantum rules for the electron orbitals in an atom
determine the row structure in the periodic table.
The geometry of the electron orbitals determines the
structure of an atom

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Program Pascasarjana Universitas Sriwijaya

Program Studi Pengelolaan Lingkungan

Program Pascasarjana Universitas Sriwijaya

The spin of the electron is another quantum property. In

the planetary model, it is similar to the spin of the Earth
on its axis. There are two choices for the orientation of
the electrons spin axis: up or down.

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Some questions:
What is an element?
Why are nuclei and atoms stable?
What is a molecule?

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Atom: smallest unit of an element

Element: any of more than 100 fundamental
substances that consist of atoms of only one kind
Molecule: a collection of atoms, bound together.
Molecules can be made from only one
element, such as H2 or O2
Molecules can be made from different
elements, such as H2O or CO2

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Parts of an Atom

Each element in the Periodic Table has a different number of

protons in its nucleus

The element also has the same number of electrons

Protons have positive charge

Change the number of protons change elements
This is called nuclear physics
Electrons have negative charge
Change the number of electrons ionize the element
This is called chemistry

Some elements also have neutrons

Neutrons have no charge

They are in the nuclei of atoms

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The Hydrogen Atom

One electron orbiting a nucleus
1 proton = Z = atomic number
0 neutrons = N

Total mass = A = Z+N =1

e
1

Singly ionized Hydrogen is

missing one electron = 1H+
Add a neutron and you have
Deuterium = 2H = D

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The Helium Atom

Two electrons orbiting a nucleus

e
p
n

n
p

e
4

He

2 protons = Z = atomic number

2 neutrons = N
Total mass = A = Z+N =4
Singly ionized Helium is missing
one electron = 4He+
Doubly ionized Helium is missing
both electrons = particle = 4He++

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Isotopes and Elements

e

p
n

n
3

If Helium loses one of its

protons (and one of its
electrons), it becomes a
different element

(Tritium)

If Helium loses one of its

neutrons, it becomes an isotope
3

He

p
n p

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Radioactivity ("Activity")
Definition: A collection of unstable atoms
that undergo spontaneous transformation
that result in new elements.
An atom with an unstable nucleus will
decay until it becomes a stable atom,
emitting radiation as it decays
Sometimes a substance undergoes several
radioactive decays before it reaches a stable
state
The amount of radioactivity (called
activity) is given by the number of nuclear

Program Studi Pengelolaan Lingkungan

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Types of Radiation
Mass
(amu)

Charge Travel Distance in Air

Alpha

4.0000

+2

few centimeters

Beta Plus

0.0005

+1

few meters

Beta Minus

0.0005

-1

few meters

Gamma

0.0000

many meters

X-Rays

0.0000

many meters

Neutron

1.0000

many meters

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Interaction of Radiation with Matter

Radiation

deposits small amounts of energy,

or "heat" in matter
alters atoms
changes molecules
damage cells & DNA
similar effects may occur from chemicals
Much of the resulting damage is from the
production of ion pairs

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Exposure and Dose

Exposure is ionization in air and is measured in
Roentgen (R) or coulomb/kg (C/kg)
1 R = 2.58 10-4 C/kg

Absorbed dose is the energy absorbed by a

material and is measured in rad or gray (Gy)

1 rad = 100 erg/g

1 gray = 1 joule/kg
1 gray = 100 rad
1 rad (in air) = 0.87 R

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Dosimetry System
Dose equivalent (H) is a measure of the biological
damage caused by radiation
H=DQN
D = absorbed dose (in a tissue or organ)
Q = quality factor
(Q for and = 1, Q for = 20)
N = other modifying factors (N = 1)
Dose equivalent measured in rem or sievert (Sv)

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Dosimetry System
Effective dose equivalent (He)
He = wT HT
HT = Dose equivalent in tissue or organ T
wT = Weighting factor for tissue or organ T
wT used to account for the different sensitivities of
tissues and organs to radiation
Effective dose equivalent also measured in rem or
sievert (Sv)

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Tissue

wT

Gonads

0.25

Breast

0.15

Red bone marrow

0.12

Lung

0.12

Thyroid

0.03

Bone surfaces

0.03

Remainder

0.30

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Absorbed
Dose (Rads)

Effect

10,000
1,200
600
450
100
50
25
5

Death in a few hours

Death within days
Death within weeks
LD 50/30
Probable Recovery
No observable effect
Blood changes definite
1st Blood change obs

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Annual Dose from Background Radiation (US)

Medical X-Rays
11

Radon 55.0%

Other 1%
Internal 11%
Cosmic 8%

Man-Made 18%
Terrestrial 6%

Nuclear
Medicine 4%

Consumer
Products 3%

Total US average dose equivalent = 360 mrem/year

Program Studi Pengelolaan Lingkungan

Program Pascasarjana Universitas Sriwijaya

Program Studi Pengelolaan Lingkungan

Program Pascasarjana Universitas Sriwijaya