Unit ii

DIGITAL PROTECTION

contents
Digital signal processing Digital filtering in protection
relays digital data transmission
Development cycle of new numerical relay.
Numerical Relay
Relay hardware
Relay software
Multiple Protection characteristics
Adaptive Protection characteristics
Data storage
Instrumentation feature
Self check feature
Communication capability
Additional functions
Size and cost effectiveness

Digital Signal Processing

DSP is a technique of performing the
mathematical operations on the
signals in digital domain.

Need for DSP

Analog signal Processing has the following
drawbacks:
They are sensitive to environmental
changes
Uncertain performance in production units
Variation in performance of units
Cost of the system will be high
Scalability
If Digital Signal Processing would have
been used we can overcome the above
shortcomings of ASP.

Digital Signal Processing

System

The Sampling Process

ADC process involves sampling the signal and then
quantizing the same to a digital value. In order to avoid
Aliasing effect, the signal has to be sampled at a rateatleast
equal to the Nyquist rate. The condition for Nyquist Criterion
is as given below,
fs= 1/T > 2 fm
where fs is the sampling frequency
fm is the maximum frequency component in the
message signal
If the sampling of the signal is carried out with a rate less
than the Nyquist rate, the higher frequency components of
the signal cannot be reconstructed properly. The plots of the
reconstructed outputs for various conditions are as shown in
figure

Verification of Sampling
Theorem

Digital filtering in protection

relays
Filters are used to remove the unwanted
components in the sequence. They are
characterized by the impulse response h (n). The
general difference equation for an Nth order filter
is given by,

 Values of the filter coefficients vary

with respect to the type of the filter.
Designof a digital filter involves
determining the filter coefficients.
Based on the length of theimpulse
response, digital filters are classified
into two categories
Finite ImpulseResponse (FIR) Filters and
Infinite Impulse Response (IIR) Filters

FIR Filters
FIR filters have impulse responses of finite
lengths. In FIR filters the present output
depends only on the past and present
values of the input sequence but not on
the previous output sequences.
Thus they are non recursive hence they
are inherently stable.
FIR filters possess linear phase response.
Hence they are very much applicable for
the applications requiring linear phase
response.

IIR FILTERS
Unlike FIR filters, IIR filters have
infinite number of impulse response
samples.
They are recursive filters as the
output depends not only on the past
and present inputs but also on the
past outputs. They generally do not
have linear phase characteristics.

 H (Z) = (b0+b1z-1+b2z-2+bLz-L) /
(1-a1z-1-a2z-2-aNz-N)
Stability of IIR filters depends on the
number and the values of the filter
coefficients.
The major advantage of IIR filters over FIR
is that, they require lesser coefficients
compared to FIR filters for the same
desired response, thus requiring less
computation time.

Factors to be considered in
designing digital filter
Travelling wave distortion : During a fault
when there is a significant change of voltage at
the fault point waves will be generated which
travel from the fault point , waves will be
generated which travel from the fault point into
the adjoining power network.
This effect is particularly prevalent in overhead
lines.
It causes corruption of relaying quantities.
The dominant frequency of the travelling waves
will be influenced by the position of the fault.

Harmonics
Rejection of harmonic effects are
achieved by using protection
algorithms which are immune to such
effects.
. Removal of low order harmonics will
increase the operating time .

Exponential offsets
Induced in transducers , particularly
(CVTs).
It is better to remove actively all.
That digital filters with dc rejection
must be used.

Digital data Transmission

It includes many different functions .
What information , when where to whom before
saying how.
Substation automation we can divide the
communication into information and
commands.
They are send basically into four locations:
Internally on the bay level, centrally on the
substation level, remotely to and from the
control level and remotely to and from the main
office.

Contd

Today some utilities are implementing mobile

workplaces for the operator and engineers.
The utility owned are microwave carrier and
power line carrier or the telephone system.
Today available speed on the system is
normally from 300 to 2400 bps.
In some cases from 9600 to 19800 bps.
Use
of
fiber
optics
and
satellite
communication the telephone companies are
offering at speed greater than 1 Mbps.
User can be divided into
four personnel
groups.

 Information to be transmitted is coded as

stream bits.
The common types of codes are CCITT NO
5 ( 7 BITS ASCII), CCIITT S. 61 (Telex),
EBCDIC( IBM Extended binary coded
interchange code).
A 7 bit code allows a total of 128
characters .
96 are alpha numerical .
32 are control character.

Simplex ,half duplex and full duplex

transmission
Simplex means the data transferred in
only one direction . Example : measuring
application.
Half duplex: in both direction but one way
at the time.
Full duplex: in both direction at the same
time.

synchronous and Asynchronous

transmission
A large number of character can be
received without interruption of start
and stop bits.
only a small amount of data eg one
character between start and stop bits
. Between two master computers.

Numerical Relays
The first protection devices based on
microprocessors were employed in 1985.
Developing
the
second
generation
numerical relays in 1990.
Modern power system protection devices
with
multifunction's
like
protection,
control , monitoring and measuring are
available today in numeric power system
protection devices.
The communication capability of these
devices
facilities
remote
control
monitoring and data transfer.

 First generation of numerical relays

were mainly designed to meet the
static relay protection.
Numerical protection devices offer
several advantages in terms of
protection, reliability and trouble
shooting and fault information.
Numerical protection devices are
available for generation
,transmission and distribution
systems.

Block diagram of numerical

relay

Relay Hardware
Numerical relays use a specialized
DSP as the computational hardware
along with associated software tools.
The relaying voltages and currents
are passed through an isolation
transformers.
The voltage inputs of the relay are
scaled down from the nominal
voltage to alow level determined by
the ADC input range.

Contd

The current inputs to the relay are scaled down from

nominal
5/1 A and are converted into equivalent voltages.
These scaled signals are filtered by using a low pass
filter to prevent aliasing of the high frequency
component into the fundamental frequency
component.
The filtered signals are multiplexed using analogue
multiplexer and amplified if needed by using a
programmable gain amplifier.
The multiplexed analogue signal is sampled and
converted into digital data using ADC.
Communication between the processors is provided by
the dual ported memory.
Flash memory is used for storing the programme and
RAM is used for temporary storage variables ,target
information ant oscillography.

 Contact inputs and outputs user interface and the the serial
communication ports are interfaced to the host processor.
The DSP executes a variety of signal processing algorithms
to estimate several parameters of the digitized voltage
and current signals , and transfers them to dual ported
memory.
The host processor receives these from the dual ported
memory and performs relay logic and other timing
functions to generate appropriate trip or alarm output
signal.
Host processor running under multi tasking can performs
communication set point updates target updates and user
interface.
Providing back up for critical components.
The analogue signal inputs are conditioned to withstand the
harsh electrical environment.
The design of relay input, output and power supply must
filter to reduce EMI

Relay software
The software provided in a numerical
relay is commonly organized in a
series of tasks operating in real time.
The main component is the RTOS.
TO ensure that other tasks are
executed as and when required on a
priority basis.

Types of Software
1. System services software: This controls
the low level IO for the relay.
2. HMI Interface software: high level
software for communication with the user
via front panel controls that are connected
to a data link to another computer running
suitable software storage and setting data.
3. Application software : defines the
protection function of the relay.
4. Auxiliary function :
other features
offered in the relay.

Key tests at various design

phases
1. Relay algorithm simulation testing.
2. Static functional testing.
3. Dynamic functional testing.
4. Environmental and hardware related
tests
Site installation and testing

Multiple Protection
Characteristics
In simple Inverse definite minimum
time lag (IDMTL) over current and
earth fault relays multiple
characteristics like NI, VI, EI, LTI and
DTL characteristics are available in
relay and the required
characteristics.

Adaptive Protection
characteristics
In motor protection relay : can be
adapted for the starting condition
and running condition .
Over current protection, earth fault
protection , unbalance protection .
sensitive settings can be adapted for
these protections during the running
conditions of the motor.

Transformer protection
Greater stability can be achieved by
monitoring the through fault
current .
Once the fault current is above the
set value the relay bias automatically
increases to facilitate greater
stability for through fault condition.

 In distance relays for different

system configurations like parallel
feeder in and parallel out and
grounded , different settings can be
adapted for this condition.
In IDMTL relays , depending upon the
system condition like the number of
incomers and outgoing feeders
different settings can beb selected
and better protection can be
achieved.

Data storage

It is done in three formats

Fault record: information about the fault .
It gives all information about the fault to
the operating personnel.
Event record : stores inside the relay all
the changes taking place in the system
like protection element like pick up , and
drop off operation, output and input
energisation and setting changes.
Waveform record :
nature of
fault
waveforms , relay operating time and CB
operating time. It can also be fed to the
harmonic analyzer software to find out the

Instrumentation
Numerical relays are provided with a metering
function and separate panel mounted meters can be
eliminated.
A number of extra quantities can be derived from
the measured quantities depend upon the input
signal available. They may include a. Sequence
quantities.
b. Power , reactive power and power factor c.
Energy
D. Maximum demand in a period, e. Harmonic quant
ities f. Frequency g. Temperatures /RTD STATUS
h. Motor start information i. Distance to fault.

Self check feature

Self check Feature

Data Acquisition System Testing: power

supply voltages and ground are connected to the
analogue i/p channels of multiplexer and checked
against warning and failure thresholds.
Memory testing: Flash ROM are checked by
calculating the check sum and comparing it with
the pre computed and stored. The RAM is tested
by writing and reading test pattern.

Set point testing : are stored in serial

EEEPROM and copy in RAM for executing relay
logic
Watchdog timer: re set circuit to take the
processor Through an orderly reset should the
programme get lost due to hardware /software
glitches.

Communication

Advantages of remote
communication

Change of settings.
Change of group settings.
Control CB.
Instrumentation viewing
Event recorder downloading
Waveform recorder and fault record
downloading.

Additional Functionality
CB fail.
Loss of load , conductor broken
Trip circuit supervision .

CB conditions monitoring including

programmable digital output and inputs for
various logic build generally for blocking.

Auxiliary relays like Buchholz relay

alarm /trip winding temperature alarm /trip
contacts , which can be connected to a
relay as logic input and details of relay
operation can be seen in the event log
sheet.
PT/CT supervision

Size of Numerical Size

HV and Environment Testing

Numerical Relays are tested as IEC
255 5 for dielectric , impulse voltage
and insulation resistance.
It should be suitable for 2 Kv
dielectric voltage,
Kv impulse voltage and insulation >
than 1000 M ohms.

Electrical Environment
Relay is tested for high frequency
disturbance, fast transient
electrostatic discharge, radio
frequency and impulse as per IEC
100 4 AND ANSIC 37.94.

Control system communication

media and configuration
Communication media used for
telephonic system include (i) pilot
wire (ii) microwave (iii)fibre optic
links and statellite.
With existing media a communication
speed of 300 to 2400 bps for remote
communication
Control station and substation.

Alternative media
Twisted pair : for telephonic
communication upto 10 Mbps.
Cheap, easily exposed to limited
capacity/speed.
Co axial cable: are more immune to
disturbance upto 50Mbps.
Optical fibre : high capacity and the
disturbance immunity upto 5Gbps.

 The simplest network configuration

is called point to point .
Direct connection between two
station .
Rapid development of desktop based
computers lead to LAN.
TOPOLGY OF LAN ARE STAR , RING
AND BUS NETWORK.
Twisted pair and co axial cable can
be used.
Fibre optic cable can be used to star
and ring.

LAN CONFIGURATION

Contd..
Bus and star topologies
have faster
communication compared to ring.
In the ring the data are transmitted from
one point to next.
Communication depends on all points
being available

star and bus

One point can fail without affecting the rest of
the network.
Star coupler should have duplicated power
supplies to increases the availability.
Fibre cabling : within the substation
environment.
At station level in large station : LAN with a bus
with coaxial cable or a active star with optical
fibre cable.
Optical ring can be used for information
exchange at object level.