Introductory Concepts of Machining

Machining is basically removal of material, most often metal, from the

workpiece, using one or more cutting tools to achieve the desired
dimensions.
There are different machining processes, such as, turning, milling, boring
etc.
In all these cases metal is removed by a shearing process, which occurs
due to the relative motion between the workpiece and the tool.

Special Purpose
Machines

NC Machines

Fixed sequence

Flexible method

Mass Production

Short/Batch

Machine require more time

for setting

With no time

Program is built in hardware Stored in software

Less scope for variation

Large scope for variation

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omputer Numerical Control (CNC)

Modern precision manufacturing demands extreme dimensional accuracy
and surface finish. Such performance is very difficult to achieve manually,
if not impossible, even with expert operators.
In the 1940s when the U.S. Air Force perceived the need to manufacture
complex parts for high-speed aircraft.
This led to the development of computer-based automatic machine tool
controls also known as the Numerical Control (NC) systems.

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flexo writer

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What is Computer Numerical Control?

Computer Numerically Controlled (CNC) machine tools, the modern

versions of NC machines have an embedded system involving several
microprocessors and related electronics as the Machine Control Unit
(MCU).

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Over a period of time, several additional features were introduced,

leading to increased machine utilisation and reduced operator
intervention.
Some of these are:
(a)Tool/work monitoring:
breakdowns.

For

enhanced

quality,

avoidance

of

(b) Automated tool magazine and palette management: For

increased versatility and reduced operator intervention over long hours
of operation

(c) Direct numerical

control
(DNC):
Advantages
of a CNC
Machine

Uses a computer interface to

upload and download part programs in to the machine automatically.
CNC machines offer the following advantages in manufacturing.
Higher flexibility: This is essentially because of programmability,
programmed control and facilities for multiple operations in one
machining centre.
Increased productivity: Due to low cycle time achieved through
higher material removal rates and low set up times achieved by faster
tool positioning, changing, automated material handling etc.
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Improved quality: Due to accurate part dimensions and excellent

surface finish that can be achieved due to precision motion control and
improved thermal control by automatic control of coolant flow.
Reduced scrap rate: Use of Part programs that are developed using
optimization procedures
Reliable and Safe operation: Advanced engineering practices for
design
and
manufacturing,
automated
monitoring,
improved
maintenance and low human interaction
Smaller footprint: Due to the fact that several machines are fused
into one.
On the other hand, the main disadvantages of NC systems are
Relatively higher cost compared to manual versions
More complicated maintenance due to the complex nature of the
technologies
Need for skilled part programmers.
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MACHINE TYPES
1. Group 1: -M/C Tools with rotating tool i.e. Milling
M/C, Drilling M/C, Boring M/C , Tapping M/C
2. Group 2: -M/C Tool with Rotating work piece i.e.
Lathe.
3. Group 3: -Non Rotating work Piece and non
rotating tool i.e. Shaper, Planer, EDM, Wire cut.
4. Group: -Other than above Z Categories i.e. NC
Drafting.
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Input Device

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Machine Control Unit

The MCU is the heart of a CNC system. It accepts the information
stored in the memory as part program.
This data is decoded and transformed into specific position control
and velocity signals.
It also oversees the movement of the control axis or spindle and
whenever this does not match with the programmed values, a
corrective action as taken.
All the compensation required for machine acquires (like lead screw
pitch error, tool wear out, backlashes.) are calculated by CPU
depending upon the corresponding inputs made available to the
system.
The same will be taken care of during the generation of control
signals for the axis movement.
Also, some basic safety checks are built into the system through this
unit and continuous necessary
corrective
actions will be provided by
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CPU unit.

MCU

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Polytetrafluoroethylene

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Servo motors

A servomotor is just a regular motor with a sensor

installed, typically to measure angular position during
operation.
Servomotors are used in applications such as robotics,
CNC
or automated manufacturing.
A machinery
servomotor is a rotary actuator that allows for
precise control of angular position, velocity and
acceleration.
It consists of a suitable motor coupled to a sensor for
position feedback. It also requires a relatively
sophisticated controller, often a dedicated module
designed
specifically for use with servomotors.
As
the
name
suggests,
a
servomotor
is
a

Mechanism

servomechanism.
More specifically, it is a closed-loop servomechanism
that uses position feedback to control its motion and
final position.

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The motor is paired with some type of encoder to provide

position and speed feedback. In the simplest case, only the
position is measured.
The measured position of the output is compared to the
command position, the external input to the controller.
If the output position differs from that required, an error signal
is generated which then causes the motor to rotate in either
direction, as needed to bring the output shaft to the appropriate
position.
As the positions approach, the error signal reduces to zero and
the motor stops.

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The back of the motor designates which type of feedback

comes with the motor.
Red designates absolute encoder feedback and Yellow
designates incremental as of late it would appear that
absolute is all that is being sold, but repair and
replacement for incremental is still everyday business.

AC Servomotor
DC Servomotor
Addition of an amplifier and a
feedback device to normal one.

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Limitations and
Considerations
Some of the following are limitations or considerations
to AC Servo Motors:
Needs a clean or sealed
environment
Needs a feedback loop for
Do not use force to
align
shafts
and
coupling
Electrical Technician is
required for installation
and wiring
Need to be mounted on
solid part of machine

controllability
Subject to high heat and
extreme cold
Best application in a
controlled environment
Motor Selection is important
depending on application

Power and feedback wiring

Susceptible to natural needs to be run from
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frequencies of machine
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UNIV.
stationary
wall power to

Stepper Motor

What is a Stepper Motor?

Motor that moves one step at a time

A digital version of an electric motor
Each step is defined by a Step Angle
As the name implies, the stepper motor moves in distinct steps
during its rotation.
Each of these steps is defined by a Step Angle.
In the example above you may notice that there are 4 distinct
steps for the rotor to make a complete 360 degree rotation.
This defines the step angle at 90 degrees.
Since this motor does move in a discreet fashion, we can say
that a stepper motor is actually a digital motor.
This characteristic makes
it very
suitable
for digital interfaces
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Why a Stepper Motor?

Relatively inexpensive

Ideal for open loop positioning control

Can be implemented without feedback

Minimizes sensing devices
Just count the steps!

Torque

Holds its position firmly when not turning

Eliminates mechanical brakes
Produces better torque than DC motors at lower speeds

Positioning applications
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More important is the fact that a stepper motor can

actually be used without any type of feedback loop.
Since the motor moves in distinct steps as defined by a
step angle, we need only count the number of steps to
position the motor accordingly.
This doesnt mean you wouldnt use a feedback loop in
some applications.
The unique torque characteristics of the stepper motor
make it ideal for position applications.
In fact, stepper motors have been used for years in such
applications as printers and machining equipment.
This type of motor will hold its position firmly at a given
step providing a relatively high holding torque.
Other torque related benefits include the higher torque
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at lower revolutions per
minute
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Main Components
Consists of
Stators
Holds multiple
windings/phases
A Rotor
Magnetized
Non-magnetized
Each stator will be wrapped with
multiple windings or phases that
will be energized using a voltage
source,
initiating
current
flow
through the winding to produce a
polarity on each end or pole of the
stator.
The rotor is the actual rotating component on the motor. This can
either be magnetized, as shown here, or non-magnetized

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If we apply a voltage across the windings around a stator,

current will flow through the winding.
Here we can see that each
magnetized to opposite poles.

end

of

the

stator

is

Magnetic flux will flow from North to South thereby

continuing through the magnetic rotor to the opposite
stator pole.
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The flux will want to travel the path of least resistance or

Basic Length Unit (BLU)

The NC controller interprets instructions and then converts them into
two types of control signals: motion control signals and
miscellaneous control signals
Motion control signals are a series of electric pulse trains that are
used to control the position and the speed of the machine table and
spindle .

pulse
activates
a motion
one activates
basic length-unit
(BLU)
which
is
InEach
motion
control
signals,
each of
pulse
a motion
of one
basic
the minimum
increment size of the NC control system
length-unit
(BLU)
Each BLU unit corresponds to the position resolution of the axis of
motion.
For example, 1 BLU = 0.0001" means that the axis will move 0.0001" for
every one electrical pulse received by the motor. The BLU is also referred
to as Bit (binary digit).
Pulse = BLU = Bit
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Feed Back Devices

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Display Unit

splay Unit serves as an interactive device between machine operator

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Types of CNC machines

Based on Motion Type:
Point-to-Point or Continuous path

Based on Control Loops:

Open loop or Closed loop

Based on Power Supply:

Electric
or Hydraulic

Based on Positioning System

Incrementalor Absolute
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or Pneumatic

Classification of NC Systems
CNC machine tool systems can be classified in various ways such as :

1.Point-to-point or contouring : depending on whether the

machine cuts metal while the workpiece moves relative to the tool

2. Incremental or absolute : depending on the type of coordinate

system adopted to parameterise the motion commands
3. Open-loop or closed-loop : depending on the control system
adopted for axis motion control

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Point-to-Point Tool Movements

Point-to-point control systems cause the tool to move to a

point on the part and execute an operation at that point only. The
tool is not in continuous contact with the part while it is moving.
Drilling, reaming, punching, boring and tapping are examples of
point-to-point operations.

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Continuous-Path Tool
Movements
Continuous-path controllers cause the tool to maintain continuous
contact with the part as the tool cuts a contour shape. These
operations include milling along any lines at any angle, milling arcs
and lathe turning.

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Coordinate Systems

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Coordinate System and Machine Motions

Coordinate System -I
The purpose is to provide a means of locating the tool
in relation to the work piece.
Numerical control coordinate system is defined with
respect to the machine tool table.
Depending on the type of NC machine, the part
programmer may have several options for specifying
the location. One of these options:

1.*Fixed zero: the origin is always located at the

same position on the machine table. All locations
must be defined by x and y coordinates relative to that
fixed origin.
*Floating zero: Modern NC machines allow the
machine operator to set the zero point at any
position on the machine table.
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ABSOLUTE

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INCREMENTAL

Loop Systems for Controlling Tool

Movement
Open Loop
System
Uses stepping motor to create movement. Motors
rotate a fixed amount for each pulse received from the
MCU. The motor sends a signal back indicating that the
movement is completed. No feedback to check how
close the actual machine movement comes to the
exact movement programmed.

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Loop Systems for Controlling Tool

Movement

Closed Loop
System
AC, DC, and hydraulic servo-motors are used. The speed
of these motors are variable and controlled by the
amount of current or fluid. The motors are connect to
the spindle and the table. A position sensor continuously
monitors the movement and sends back a single to
Comparator to make adjustments.

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Machining center is a machine tool capable of

performing several different machining
operations on a work part in one setup under
program control
The mach. center is capable of milling, drilling,
reaming, tapping, boring, facing, and similar
operations.
Characterizations of an NC machining center:
Automatic tool-changing capability
Automatic work part positioning
Pallet shuttle

Vertical mach centers for flat work, and

horizontal mach. centers for cube-shaped
parts.
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Other machines and equipment utilizing NCtype controls:

Electrical wire-wrap machines
Component insertion machines
Drafting machines
Coordinate measuring machines
Flame cutting, plasma arc cutting, laser cutting,
and similar machines
Tube bending
Cloth cutting
Knitting
Riveting
Filament winding
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CNC Machines
Machining Centers, equipped with automatic tool changers, are capable
of changing 90 or more tools. Can perform milling, drilling, tapping,
boring on many faces.

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Machining Centre - types

Three types of machining centres
1. Vertical Machining centre
2. Horizontal Machining centre
3. Universal Machining centre

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Machining Centre - types

Vertical
For flat
work
pieces
that
require
tool
access
from
the top
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Vertical Machining Centre

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Machining Centre - types

Horizontal
For cube shaped parts, where access is required all sides
Has spindle on the horizontal axis

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Universal
Machining Centre
Spindle axis can
be tilted from
horizontal to
vertical
Equivalent to 5axis machining

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CNC Machines
Turning Centers are capable of executing many different types of
lathe cutting operations simultaneously on a rotating part.

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CNC Controllers
The NC controller is the brain of the NC system, it controls all
functions of the machine.

Motion control deals with the tool position,

orientation and speed.

Auxiliary control deals with spindle rpm, tool

change, fixture clamping and coolant.

Many different types of controllers are available in the market

(GE, Fanuc, Seimens, Allen-Bradley, Okuma, Bendix, ).
There are two basic types of control systems:
point-to-point and continuous path.
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Configuration of CNC machine

control unit

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CNC Controllers

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CNC Controllers
CNC controller interprets part program instructions and then converts them into two
types of control signals:
Motion control signals
- a series of electric pulse trains that control position and the speed of
machine table and spindle.
- Each pulse activates a motion of one basic length-unit (BLU) which is the
minimum increment size of the NC control system
- number of pulses transmitted to each axis determines the incremental axis
position; frequency of these pulses regulates the axis speed

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CNC Controllers
The control signals in CNC systems are in the form of
binary words. Each word contains a fixed number of
bits, 32 bits or 64 bits are commonly used.
Each bit of data produces one BLU motion in the
controlled axis.
A 32-bit word could represent one of up to 232 =
4,294,967,296 different axial positions.
If the system resolution is, for example, BLU =
0.0001 in., this number can represent up to 429,969
in. possible motions, which is more than enough for
all types of applications
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CNC Controllers

Miscellaneous control signals

-a set of on/off signals to implement the control of

1. speed and direction of the spindle rotation,
2. control of coolant supply,
3. selection of cutting tool,
4. automatic clamping and unclamping, etc.

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Types of interpolation
1. Linear interpolation
Straight line between two points in space
2. Circular interpolation
Circular arc defined by starting point, end
point, center or radius, and direction
3. Helical interpolation
Circular plus linear motion
4. Parabolic interpolation
5. Cubic interpolation
Free form curves using higher order equations
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Circular Interpolation Methods

Approximation of a curved path in NC by a series of straight line

segments, where tolerance is defined on only the outside of the
nominal curve
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Circular Interpolation Methods

Approximation of a curved path in NC by a series of straight line

segments, where tolerance is defined on both the inside and outside of
the nominal curve
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Direct Numerical Control (DNC)

Direct Numerical Control can be defined as a type of manufacturing
system in which several NC or CNC machines are controlled remotely
from a Host/Main frame computer or direct numerical control (DNC)
control of multiple machine tools by a single (mainframe) computer
through direct connection.

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The basic DNC system requires following basic component are Main

frame computer, Memory, Communication network, NC

machine tool.
The communication network can be done either through connecting
the remotely located computer, with lengthy cables to the individual
machine control directly or connecting the main frame computer with
a small computer at individual operators station known as satellite
computer.
DNC system is expensive and is preferably used in large
organizations. The combination of DNC/CNC makes possible to
eliminate the use of programme as the input media for CNC machines.
The DNC computer downloads the program directly to the CNC
computer memory.
This reduces the amount of communication required between the
central computer and each machine tool.

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Distributed Numerical Control (DNC)

In early 1980s, with advancement in computers and communication
technologies, engineers realized that in a network of computers there
must be a proper co-ordination for operations of a group of CNC
machine tools.
Now, many CNC machines together with robots, programmable logic
controllers, and other computer-based controllers have been integrated
into DNC systems to make automated manufacturing systems possible

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Voice Numerical Control

(VNC)
Voice Numerical Control (VNC) is similar to
DNC machines but the programmer
conveys the information needed to operate
the machine by means of computer
system. The programmer talks into the
computer, and the memory receives the
information using a wire. This information
can be taken and used to run the
machines.
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Adaptive Control
to adapt means to change a behavior to conform
to new circumstances.
An adaptive controller
a controller that can modify its behavior in response
to the changes in dynamics of the processes and the
disturbances acting on the process.
A self-correcting form of optimal control
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Adaptive Control
In machining, it includes automatic adjustment of
cutting parameters like speeds, feeds, depth of cut, etc.

General
Configuration

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Adaptive Control
Adaptive controller performs 3 functions
1. Identification
-

Identifies the current value of performance index

Functions continuously to be dynamic

2. Decision
- decide what changes have to be made to
improve system performance
3. Modification
- implement the decision
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Adaptive Control
Two types of Adaptive control
Adaptive Control with optimization (ACO)
Adaptive Control with constraints (ACC)
ACO attempts to maximize IP index of performance
IP = MRR/ TWR
MRR = Metal Removal Rate; TWR = Tool Wear Rate
usually an economic index of performance
eg: Maximum production rate, minimum production cost

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Adaptive Control
Adaptive Control with Constraints (ACC)
Machining conditions are maximized within machine
constraints eg: maximum force or torque or power

Two sensors are employed

Tool vibration sensor accelerometer mounted on the
housing
Spindle torque sensor strain gauges mounted on the
machine spindle

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The three functions of adaptive

control are:
1. Identification function.
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2. Decision function.
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