AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENT

FUDAMENTALS
AERO 5386
CLASS 3325

Learning Outcomes

State the ICAO instrumentation requirements & describe

instrumentation elements, mechanisms, error sources and
temperature compensation
Describe the lighting of panel-mounted instruments
Describe concepts and terms relating to the operation of aircraft
instrumentation DC synchronous systems
Describe the operation of engine indicating systems
Describe the operation of temperature indicating systems
Describe the operation of fuel quantity and flow systems
Describe the principle of operation of pitot static flight instruments
Describe and explain the operation & construction of direct reading
magnetic compasses

Learning Outcomes Contd

Describe and explain the operation of flight instruments

incorporating gyroscopes & define related terms
Describe and explain using words & diagrams, the
operation gyro-magnetic compass systems
Describe and explain the operation of a flight director
system to block diagram level
Describe & explain the operation of accelerometers,
fatigue meters & flight data recorders

Learning Outcome 1 Assessment Criteria

State the ICAO instrumentation requirements & describe
instrumentation elements, mechanisms, error sources and temperature
compensation
1.

State the requirements for instrumentations IAW the International

Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO)

2.

Describe the following elements of an instrument system

a. detecting
b. measuring
c. coupling
d. indicating

Describe how the following components function in instrument

systems
a. levers
b. rods
c. gears

Learning Outcome 1 Assessment Criteria

Contd
4.

Describe the function of hairsprings & jewelled bearings

5.

Define the following terms :

a. range error
b. position error
c. hysteresis error
d. random error

6.

Describe the following methods of temperature compensation in

instrument mechanism
a. bi-metal strip
b. thermo- resistance
c. thermo- magnetic shunt

Learning Outcome 2 Assessment Criteria

Describe the lighting of panel-mounted instruments

1.

Describe the types of instruments lighting, including:

Flood lights
Pillar lights
bridge lighting
internal (edge) lighting

2.

List the types of control panel lighting, including:

integrated
electroluminescent

Learning Outcome 3 Assessment Criteria

Describe concepts & terms relating to the operation of

aircraft instrumentation DC synchronous system

1.

Describe the purpose of DC synchronous system

2.

Describe the principle of operation DC synchronous system

3.

4.

Describe the purpose of AC synchronous system

Describe the principle of operation AC synchronous system

Learning Outcome 3 Assessment Criteria

Contd
5. State the purpose & identify the circuit symbols of the
following
Torque synchro system
Torque synchro transmitter (TX)
Torque synchro receiver (TR)
Control synchro system
Control synchro transmitter (CX)
Control synchro transformer (CT)
Torque synchro differential transmitter (TDX)
Control synchro differential transmitter (CDX)
E & I bar sensors

Learning Outcome 4 Assessment Criteria

Describe the operation of engine Indicating systems
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8

Describe the operation of DC speed measuring systems

Describe the operation of AC speed measuring systems
Describe the operation of pulsed speed measuring systems
Describe the operation of oil pressure indicating systems
Describe the operation of manifold pressure indicating
systems
Describe the operation of engine pressure ratio gauges
Describe the operation of engine vibration monitoring
systems
Describe the operation of torque meters

Learning Outcome 5 Assessment Criteria

Describe the operation of temperature Indicating
system
5.1

Define Static Air Temperature (SAT), Ram Air Temperature (RAT) and
Total
Air Temperature (TAT)
5.2
Describe the operation of Wheatstone Bridge based temperature
indicating systems
5.3
Describe the operation of Thermocouple temperature indicating
systems
5.4
List the various combinations of Thermocouple materials used and
state
their operating parameters
5.5.
Describe the operation of the cold junction compensation for
thermocouple leads and probes
5.6
Describe the construction and operation of radiometer type
temperature
indicating systems
5.7
Describe the construction and operation of radiation pyrometer type
temperature indicating systems

Learning Outcome 6 Assessment Criteria

Describe the operation of fuel quantity and flow systems
6.1

State the difference between 'Volumetric' and 'Mass' fuel

indicating
systems
6.2
State the effects of temperature and density on fuel quantity
indicating systems
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6

List the types of DC volumetric indicating systems

Describe the operation of mass fuel quantity indicating systems
State the requirements of fuel flow measuring systems
Describe the operation of fuel flow measuring systems

Learning Outcome 7 Assessment Criteria

Describe the principle operation of of pitot static flight instrumenets
7.1

State the layers of the atmosphere and describe the effects of altitude on
pressure and temperature

7.2

Describe the effects of humidity, temperature and pressure on air density

7.3

Describe the characteristics of the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA)

and the methods of measuring atmospheric pressure

7.4

In terms of the ISA define:

lapse rate
density
temperature
pressure

7.5

Describe the construction, operation and Junction of the following sensing

devices:
Bellows (absolute and differential)
Bourdon tubes
Capsules (absolute and differential)
Diaphragms

Learning Outcome 7 Assessment Criteria Contd

Describe the principle operation of of pitot static flight
instruments
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
7.10
7.11
7.12
7.13

describe the construction and operation of pilot, pilot/static probes and

static vents (primary and alternate)
State the heating requirements for pitot, pitot/static probes and the
methods of indication
Explain position error and its effect on pitot static instruments
Describe the layout of a typical pitot static aircraft system
Carry out a pitot static leak test in accordance with (IAW) the
relevant orders on both VFR and IFR aircraft
Describe the construction and operation of an altimeter and explain the
effects of temperature and atmospheric pressure changes on their
indication
Describe the different methods of presentation of altimeter indications
Define the terms:
QFE
QNE
QNH

Learning Outcome 7 Assessment Criteria Contd

Describe the principle operation of of pitot static flight
instruments
7.14

Describe the methods of adjustment applied to an altimeter to

allow for the application of the settings of QFE, QNE, QNH
7.15
Define the term Flight Level and describe the effect on
altimeter reading when 1013.2mb is set on the barometric
scale
7.16
Describe the serviceability tests which can be applied to the
altimeter system IAW relevant orders and instructions
7.17
Describe the construction and operation of the vertical speed
indicator and the instantaneous vertical speed indicator
7.18
Define the following terms:
Indicated, calibrated and true airspeed
Mach number and critical mach number
Maximum mach operating (MMO)
Sonic, subsonic, transonic and supersonic speeds
speed of sound
Velocity maximum operating (VMO

Learning Outcome 7 Assessment Criteria Contd

Describe the principle operation of of pitot static flight
instruments
7.19

Describe the construction and operation of:

airspeed switches
airspeed indicators
Mach airspeed indicators
Mach meters
Maximum allowable airspeed indicators

7.20
Describe the construction and operation of a typical altitude
alerting and reporting system including encoding altimeters
7.21
State the purpose of a central air data computer system
(CADC)
7.22
State the purpose of a:
stall warning system
angle of attach system (Alpha Poles)

Learning Outcome 8 Assessment Criteria

Describe the construction and operation of Direct reading &
Magnetic compasses
8.1

8.2
8.3

Define the following terms in relation to terrestrial magnetism:

aclinic line or magnetic equator
agonic line
angle of dip
deviation
isoclinic line
isogonal line
magnetic meridian
magnetic and geographic poles
variation or declination.
describe the construction and operation of a direct reading magnetic
compass
describe the following inherent errors or deficiencies in direct reading
compasses and the methods used to overcome them:
Soft iron and hard iron magnetism
A, B, C errors
Acceleration and turning errors

Learning Outcome 9 Assessment Criteria

Describe and explain the operation of flight instruments
incorporating gyroscopes & defined related areas
9.1

Describe the operation of a gyroscope when used as a

reference for displacement and rate

9.2

Describe the limitations of a displacement gyroscope

9.3

Describe the effect of rotor speed change on the output of a

rate gyroscope

9.4

Define the term tied gyroscope

9.5

Describe the errors that affect a spinning mass gyroscope,

including:
real drift
apparent drift
transport rate

Learning Outcome 9 Assessment Criteria Contd

Describe and explain the operation of flight instruments
incorporating gyroscopes & defined related areas
9.6

Describe the method of correction for the following errors:

real drift
apparent drift
transport rate

9.7

Describe the operation of a displacement gyroscope when

used in artificial horizons and directional gyros

9.8

State the purpose of erection systems used on gyroscopes and

describe their operation in artificial horizons and directional
gyros

9.9

State the purpose and describe the principle of operation of a

turn and slip indicator

Learning Outcome 10 Assessment Criteria

Describe and explain using words and diagrams, the operation of
gyro-magnetic compass systems
10.1

Sketch the block diagram of a gyro-magnetic compass system

10.2

List the advantages of a gyro-magnetic compass system over

direct reading compasses

10.3

Describe the principle of operation of flux detector valves

10.4

Describe the two modes of gyro-magnetic compass system

operation

10.5

Describe the principle of operation of gyro-magnetic compass

systems

Learning Outcome 11 Assessment Criteria

Describe and explain the operation of a flight director system (FDS) to
block diagram level
11.1

State the purpose of an FDS

11.2

List the components of a typical FDS

11.3

State the purpose of the controls and displays on:

horizontal situation indicators (HSIs)
attitude direction indicators (ADIs)

11.4

Describe the operation of an FDS to block diagram level

Learning Outcome 11 Assessment Criteria

Describe and explain the operation of accelerometers, fatigue
meters and flight data recorders.

12.1

State the purpose and describe the principle of operation of:

accelerometers
fatigue meters
flight data recorders

Introduction
The complexity of modern aircraft and all allied equipment and
the nature of the environmental conditions under which they
must operate, require conformity of design, development and
subsequent operation with established requirements and
standards.
The international operation of civil aircraft necessitates
international recognition that aircraft do, in fact, comply with
their respective national airworthiness requirements. As a
result, international standards of airworthiness are also laid
down by the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO).
These standards do not replace national regulations, but serve
to define the complete minimum international basis for the
recognition by countries of airworthiness certification.

1.1 Requirements
Location, Visibility and Grouping of Instruments
1. All instruments shall be located so that they can be read easily by the appropriate
member of the flight crew.
2. When illumination of instruments is provided, there shall be sufficient illumination to
make them easily readable and discernible by night. Instrument lights shall be
installed in such a manner that the pilot's eyes- are shielded from their direct rays and
that no objectionable reflections are visible to him.
3. Flight, navigation and power plant instruments for use by a pilot shall be plainly
visible to him from his station with the minimum practicable deviation from his normal
position and line of vision when he is looking out- and forward along the flight path of
the aircraft.
4. All flight instruments shall be grouped on the instrument panel and, as far as practi
cable, symmetrically disposed about the vertical plane of the pilot's forward vision.
5. All the required power plant instruments shall be conveniently grouped on instru
ment panels and in such a manner that they may be readily seen by the appropriate
crew member.
6. In multi-engine aircraft, identical power plant instruments for the several engines
shall be located so as to prevent any misleading impression as to the engines to
which they relate.

Instrument Panels
The vibration characteristics of instrument panels shall
be such as not to impair seriously the accuracy of the
instruments or to damage them. The minimum
acceptable vibration insulation characteristics are
established by standards formulated by the appropriate
national organisation.

1.2

Instruments to be Installed
Flight and Navigation Instruments

1. Altimeter adjustable for changes in barometric pressure.

2. Airspeed indicator.
3. Vertical speed indicator.
4. Gyroscopic bank-and-pitch attitude indicator.
5. Gyroscopic rate-of-turn indicator (with bank indicator).
6. Gyroscopic direction indicator.
7. Magnetic compass.
8. Outside air temperature indicator.
9. clock.

Pitot-static System
Instruments 1, 2 and 3 mentioned previously form part of an
aircraft's pitot-static system, which must also conform to
certain requirements. These are summarised as follows:
1. the system shall be airtight, except for the vents to
atmosphere and shall be arranged so that the accuracy of
the instruments cannot be seriously affected by the aircraft's
speed, attitude or configuration; by moisture; or other foreign
matter;
2. the system shall be provided with a heated pitot-pressure
probe to prevent malfunctioning due to icing;
3. sufficient moisture traps shall be installed to ensure positive
drainage throughout the whole of the system;

Pitot-static System Contd

4. in aircraft in which an alternate or emergency system is to be
installed, the system must be as reliable as the primary one and
any selector valve must be clearly marked to indicate which
system is in use;
5. pipelines shall be of such an internal diameter that pressure
lag and possibility of moisture blockage is kept to an acceptable
minimum;
6. where static vents are used, to obviate yawing errors, they
shall be situated on opposite sides of the aircraft and connected
together as one system. Where duplicate systems are
prescribed, a second similar system shall be provided

Gyroscopic Instruments
Gyroscopic instruments may be of the vacuum-operated or
electrically operated type, but in all cases, the instruments shall
be provided with two independent sources of power, a means of
selecting either power source or a means of indicating that the
power supply is working satisfactorily.
The installation and power supply system shall be such that
failure of one instrument, or of the supply from one source, or a
fault in any part of the supply system, will not interfere with the
proper supply of power from the other source.

Duplicate Instruments
In aircraft involving two-pilot operation it is necessary for each
pilot to have his own pilot-static and gyroscopic instruments.
Therefore two independent operating systems must be provided
and must be so arranged that no fault which might impair the
operation of one is likely to impair the operation of both.

Magnetic Compass
The magnetic compass shall be installed so that its accuracy will
not be excessively affected by the aircraft vibration or magnetic
fields of a permanent or transient nature.

Power plant Instruments

1. Tachometer to measure the rotational speed of a crankshaft or
a compressor as appropriate to the type of power plant.
2. Cylinder-head temperature indicator for an air-cooled engine to
indicate the temperature of the hottest cylinder.
3- Carburetor-intake air temperature indicator.
4. Oil temperature indicator to show the oil inlet and/or outlet
temperature.
5. For turbojet and turbo propeller engines a temperature indicator
to indicate whether the turbine or exhaust gas temperature is
maintained within its limitations.
6. Fuel-pressure indicator to indicate pressure at which fuel is
being supplied and a means for warning of low pressure.
7. Oil pressure indicator to indicate pressure at which oil is being
supplied to a lubricating system and a means for warning of low
pressure.

INSTRUMENT MECHANISMS

Elements
From the operating point of view, we may regard an instrument as
being made up of the following four principal elements:
1. the detecting element, which detects changes in value of the
physical quantity or condition presented to it;
2. the measuring element, which actually measures the value of the
physical quantity or condition in terms of small translation or angular
displacements;
3. ,the coupling element, by which displacements are magnified and
transmitted; and
4. the indicating element, which exhibits the value of the measured
quantity transmitted by the coupling element, by the relative
positions of a pointer or index and a scale.

Four elements

1.
2.
3.
4.

Detecting Unit
Measuring Unit
Coupling Element
Indicating Element

Mechanism
(a) Direct-reading
pressure gauge
(b) Airspeed indicator
containing
measuring, coupling
and indicating
elements

Lever Mechanism
Let us consider first of all the simple Bourdon
tube pressure gauge . The Bourdon tube forms
both the detecting and measuring elements, a
simple link, lever, quadrant and pinion forms the
coupling element, while the indicating element is
made up of the pointer and scale. This
mechanism is of the basic lever type, the lever
being, in this case, the complete coupling
element. When pressure is applied to the tube it is
displaced, such displacement resulting in input
and output movements of the coupling and
indicating elements respectively, in the directions
shown.

Simple lever mechanism

lever length which is the

distance d between the
point of operation of the
measuring element and
pivoting point of the lever;
and
lever angle which is the
angle 0 between the lever
and the link connecting it
to the measuring
element.

Rod Mechanisms
Unlike pure lever mechanisms, rod mechanisms
dispense with pin or screw-jointed linkages for the
interconnection of component parts and rely on rods in
contact with and sliding relative to each other for the
generation of the input/output relationship. Contact
between the rods under all operating conditions is
maintained by the use of a hairspring which tensions the
whole mechanism.

These mechanisms find their greatest application in flight instruments

Rod mechanisms
(a) Sine mechanism
(b) Tangent mechanism
(c) Double-tangent mechanism

Gears
The coupling and indicating elements of many aircraft
instruments employ gears in one form or another, for the
direct conversion of straight-line or arc-like motion into
full rotary motion and for increasing or decreasing the
motion. Figure 2.5 illustrates, in schematic