Lecture6 Classical Pid Controllers1

Classical PID Controllers
Eng R. L. Nkumbwa
School of Technology
Copperbelt University
2010
PID Controllers
This note examines a particular control structure that has become

almost universally used in industrial control.
It is based on a particular fixed structure controller family, the socalled PID controller family.
These controllers have proven to be robust and extremely
beneficial in the control of many important applications.
PID stands for:
P (Proportional)
I (Integral)
D (Derivative)
08/03/15
Eng R. L. Nkumbwa, Copperbelt

University, School of Technology
General Control System Arrangement
08/03/15

What is Classical Control?

Classical
control involves the choice of a

suitable controller in the transfer function
Gc(s) so that closed performance meets the
specifications as in figure on the previous
slide.
08/03/15

Historical Note
Early feedback control devices implicitly or explicitly

used the ideas of proportional, integral, and
derivative action in their structures. However, it was
probably not until Minorskys work on ship steering
published in 1922, that rigorous theoretical
consideration was given to PID control.
This was the first mathematical treatment of the type
of controller that is now used to control almost all
industrial processes.
08/03/15

The Current Situation

Despite
the abundance of sophisticated

tools, including advanced controllers, the
Proportional, Integral, Derivative (PID
controller) is still the most widely used in
modern industry, controlling more that 95% of
closed-loop industrial processes.
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So, what is a Controller?

A controller
is a device that generates an

output signal based on the input signal it
receives.
The input signal is actually an error signal,
which is the difference between the
measured variable and the desired value, or
set point.
See figure below for the Controller.
7
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Heat Exchanger Control System
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Structure of a Controller
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Structure of a Controller
This
10
input error signal represents the amount of

deviation between where the process system is
actually operating and where the process system
is desired to be operating.
The controller provides an output signal to the
final control element, which adjusts the process
system to reduce this deviation.
The characteristic of this output signal is
dependent on the type, or mode, of the
controller.
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Modes of Controllers
11
The mode of control is the manner in which a control

system makes corrections relative to an error that exists
between the desired value (set point) of a controlled
variable and its actual value.
The mode of control used for a specific application
depends on the characteristics of the process being
controlled. For example, some processes can be
operated over a wide band, while others must be
maintained very close to the set point.
Deviation is the difference between the set point of a
process variable and its actual value. This is a key term
Eng R.
L. control.
Nkumbwa, Copperbelt
used when discussing
various
modes
of
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Four Modes of Controllers

Four
modes of control commonly used for

most applications are:
Proportional (P)
Proportional plus Reset (PI)
Proportional plus Rate (PD)
Proportional plus Reset plus Rate (PID)
Other Authors state it differently as follows
12
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Four Modes of Controllers
13
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Proportional Controllers (P)

Each
14
mode of control has characteristic

advantages and limitations.
The modes of control are discussed in this and
the next several sections of this module.
In the proportional (throttling) mode, there is a
continuous linear relation between value of the
controlled variable and position of the final
control element.
In other words, amount of valve movement is
proportional to amount
of
deviation.
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Proportional Controllers
15
Three terms commonly used to describe the

proportional mode of control are proportional band, gain
and offset.
Proportional band, (also called throttling range), is the
change in value of the controlled variable that causes full
travel of the final control element.
Gain, also called sensitivity, compares the ratio of
amount of change in the final control element to amount
of change in the controlled variable.
Mathematically, gain and sensitivity are reciprocal to
proportional band. 08/03/15
Proportional Controllers
Offset,
also called droop, is deviation that

remains after a process has stabilized. Offset is
an inherent characteristic of the proportional
mode of control. In other words, the proportional
mode of control will not necessarily return a
controlled variable to its set point.
Proportional control is also referred to as
throttling control.
16
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Reset or Integral Controller (I)

Integral
17
control describes a controller in which

the output rate of change is dependent on the
magnitude of the input.
Specifically, a smaller amplitude input causes a
slower rate of change of the output.
This controller is called an integral controller
because it approximates the mathematical
function of integration.
The integral control method is also known as
reset control. 08/03/15
Definition of Integral Control

A device
that performs the mathematical function

of integration is called an integrator.
The mathematical result of integration is called
the integral.
The integrator provides a linear output with a rate
of change that is directly related to the amplitude
of the step change input and a constant that
specifies the function of integration.
18
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Example of an Integral Output for a

Fixed Input
19
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Integral Flow Rate Controller
20
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Integral Flow Rate Controller
21
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Properties of Integral Control
22
The major advantage of integral controllers is that they

have the unique ability to return the controlled variable
back to the exact set point following a disturbance.
Disadvantages of the integral control mode are that it
responds relatively slowly to an error signal and that it
can initially allow a large deviation at the instant the error
is produced.
This can lead to system instability and cyclic operation.
For this reason, the integral control mode is not normally
used alone, but is combined with another control mode.
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Proportional Plus Reset Control (PI)

Proportional
plus reset control is a combination

of the proportional and integral control modes.
This type control is actually a combination of two
previously discussed control modes, proportional
and integral.
Combining the two modes results in gaining the
advantages and c o m p e n s a t i n g f o r t h e
disadvantages of the two individual modes.
23
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Characteristics of the PI
24
The main advantage of the proportional control mode is

that an immediate proportional output is produced as
soon as an error signal exists at the controller as shown
in Figure below.
The proportional controller is considered a fast-acting
device.
This immediate output change enables the proportional
controller to reposition the final control element within a
relatively short period of time in response to the error.
See below figure for the response of the PI Control
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25
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Disadvantages of the
Proportional Control
26
The main disadvantage of the proportional control mode

is that a residual offset error exists between the
measured variable and the set point for all but one set of
system conditions.
The main advantage of the integral control mode is that
the controller output continues to reposition the final
control element until the error is reduced to zero.
This results in the elimination of the residual offset error
allowed by the proportional mode.
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Disadvantages of the
Proportional Control
The
main disadvantage of the integral mode is

that the controller output does not immediately
direct the final control element to a new position
in response to an error signal.
The controller output changes at a defined rate
of change, and time is needed for the final
control element to be repositioned.
27
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PI Equations
28
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PI Characteristics
29
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Characteristics of the PI
The
combination of the two control modes is

called the proportional plus reset (PI) control
mode.
It combines the immediate output
characteristics of a proportional control mode
with the zero residual offset characteristics of
the integral mode.
30
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Example of the PI for the Plant

Heat Exchanger
31
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Effects of Disturbance on Reverse

Acting Controller
32
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Effects of Disturbance on Reverse

Acting Controller
By
adding the reset action to the proportional

action the controller produces a larger output for
the given error signal and causes a greater
adjustment of the control valve.
This causes the process to come back to the set
point more quickly. Additionally, the reset action
acts to eliminate the offset error after a period of
time.
33
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Reset Wind-Up
34
Proportional plus reset controllers act to eliminate the offset error

found in proportional control by continuing to change the output after
the proportional action is completed and by returning the controlled
variable to the set point.
An inherent disadvantage to proportional plus reset controllers is the
possible adverse effects caused by large error signals.
The large error can be caused by a large demand deviation or when
initially starting up the system.
This is a problem because a large sustained error signal will
eventually cause the controller to drive to its limit, and the result is
called "reset windup."
Because of reset windup, this control mode is not well-suited for
processes that are frequently shut down and started up.
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Proportional plus Rate control (PD)
35
Proportional plus rate control is a control mode in which a

derivative section is added to the proportional controller.
Proportional plus rate describes a control mode in which
a derivative section is added to a proportional controller.
This derivative section responds to the rate of change of
the error signal, not the amplitude; this derivative action
responds to the rate of change the instant it starts.
This causes the controller output to be initially larger in
direct relation with the error signal rate of change.
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PD Controller
36
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PD Controller
37
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Proportional plus Rate control (PD)

The
38
higher the error signal rate of change, the

sooner the final control element is positioned to
the desired value.
The added derivative action reduces initial
overshoot of the measured variable, and
therefore aids in stabilizing the process sooner.
This control mode is called proportional plus rate
(PD) control because the derivative section
responds to the rate of change of the error
signal.
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Definition of the Derivative Control

A device
39
that produces a derivative signal is

called a differentiator. Figure below shows the
input versus output relationship of a differentiator.
The differentiator provides an output that is
directly related to the rate of change of the input
and a constant that specifies the function of
differentiation.
The derivative constant is expressed in units of
seconds and defines the differential controller
output.
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Derivative Output for a Constant Rate

of change
40
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Rate Control Output
41
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Rate Control Output

The
differentiator acts to transform a changing

signal to a constant magnitude signal as shown
in Figure above.
As long as the input rate of change is constant,
the magnitude of the output is constant.
A new input rate of change would give a new
output magnitude.
42
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Rate Control Output

Derivative
43
cannot be used alone as a control
mode.
This is because a steady-state input produces a
zero output in a differentiator.
If the differentiator were used as a controller, the
input signal it would receive is the error signal.
As just described, a steady-state error signal
corresponds to any number of necessary output
signals for the positioning of the final control
element.
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Rate Control Output

Therefore,
derivative action is combined with

proportional action in a manner such that the
proportional section output serves as the
derivative section input.
Proportional plus rate controllers take advantage
of both proportional and rate control modes.
44
08/03/15

Proportional Action
As
seen in Figure below, proportional action

provides an output proportional to the error.
If the error is not a step change, but is slowly
changing, the proportional action is slow.
Rate action, when added, provides quick
response to the error.
45
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46
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Example of the Proportional Plus rate

Control
To illustrate
proportional plus rate control, we will

use the same heat exchanger process that has
been analyzed in previous chapters (see Figure
below).
For this example, however, the temperature
controller used is a proportional plus rate
controller.
47
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Proportional Plus rate Control for the

Heat Exchanger
48
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Effects of Disturbance
49
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Industrial Applications
50
Proportional plus rate control is normally used with large

capacity or slow-responding processes such as
temperature control.
The leading action of the controller output compensates
for the lagging characteristics of large capacity, slow
processes.
Rate action is not usually employed with fast responding
processes such as flow control or noisy processes
because derivative action responds to any rate of change
in the error signal, including the noise.
Proportional plus rate controllers are useful with
processes which are frequently started up and shut down
Engwindup.
R. L. Nkumbwa, Copperbelt
because it is not susceptible to reset
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Proportional Plus Integral Plus

Derivative Control (PID)
51
Proportional plus reset plus rate controllers combine

proportional control actions with integral and derivative
actions.
For processes that can operate with continuous cycling,
the relatively inexpensive two position controller is
adequate.
For processes that cannot tolerate continuous cycling, a
proportional controller is often employed.
For processes that can tolerate neither continuous cycling
nor offset error, a proportional plus reset controller can be
used.
For processes that need improved stability and can
Eng plus
R. L. Nkumbwa,
Copperbelt
tolerate an offset error, a proportional
rate controller
08/03/15
is employed.
Proportional Plus Integral Plus

Derivative Control (PID)
However,
there are some processes that cannot

tolerate offset error, yet need good stability.
The logical solution is to use a control mode that
combines the advantages of proportional, reset,
and rate action.
This chapter describes the mode identified as
proportional plus reset plus rate, commonly
called Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID).
52
08/03/15

Controller Action
When
an error is introduced to a PID controller,

the controllers response is a combination of the
proportional, integral, and derivative actions, as
shown in Figure below.
53
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54
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Controller Action
55
Assume the error is due to a slowly increasing measured

variable. As the error increases, the proportional action of
the PID controller produces an output that is proportional
to the error signal.
The reset action of the controller produces an output
whose rate of change is determined by the magnitude of
the error.
In this case, as the error continues to increase at a steady
rate, the reset output continues to increase its rate of
change.
The rate action of the controller produces an output
whose magnitude is determined by the rate of change.
When combined, these actions produce
output
as
Eng R. L.an
Nkumbwa,
Copperbelt
08/03/15
shown in Figure above.
Controller Action
As
you can see from the combined action

curve, the output produced responds
immediately to the error with a signal that is
proportional to the magnitude of the error
and that will continue to increase as long as
the error remains increasing.
56
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PID Controller Response Curves
57
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PID Response Curves

Figure
58
above demonstrates the combined

controller response to a demand disturbance.
The proportional action of the controller stabilizes
the process.
The reset action combined with the proportional
action causes the measured variable to return to
the set point.
The rate action combined with the proportional
action reduces the initial overshoot and cyclic
period.
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PID Controller
59
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PID Controllers Equations
60
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PID Controller Characteristics
61
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Design of PID Controllers

Based
on the knowledge of P, I and D

trial and error
manual tuning
simulation
62
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Tuning of PID Controllers
Because of their widespread use in practice, we present

below several methods for tuning PID controllers.
Actually these methods are quite old and date back to the
1950s.
Nonetheless, they remain in widespread use today.
In particular, we will study
63
Ziegler-Nichols Oscillation Method

Ziegler-Nichols Reaction Curve Method
Cohen-Coon Reaction Curve Method
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Ziegler-Nichols Method
Ziegler-Nichols
method
based on a open-loop process
based on a critical gain
64
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Ziegler-Nichols (Z-N)
Oscillation Method
This
procedure is only valid for open loop stable

plants and it is carried out through the following
steps:
65
Set the true plant under proportional control, with a

very small gain.
Increase the gain until the loop starts oscillating.
Note that linear oscillation is required and that it
should be detected at the controller output.
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Ziegler-Nichols (Z-N)
Oscillation Method
66
Record the controller critical gain Kp = Kc and the

oscillation period of the controller output, Pc.
Adjust the controller parameters according to next
slide; there is some controversy regarding the PID
parameterization for which the Z-N method was
developed, but the version described here is
applicable to the parameterization of standard
form PID.
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Ziegler-Nichols tuning using the

oscillation method
67
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Reaction Curve
68
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Reaction Curve Based Methods

A linearized
quantitative version of a simple plant

can be obtained with an open loop experiment,
using the following procedure:
69
1. With the plant in open loop, take the plant manually

to a normal operating point. Say that the plant output
settles at y(t) = y0 for a constant plant input u(t) = u0.
2. At an initial time, t0, apply a step change to the
plant input, from u0 to u (this should be in the range
of 10 to 20% of full scale).
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Reaction Curve Based Methods
70
3. Record the plant output until it settles to the

new operating point. Assume you obtain the curve
shown on the next slide. This curve is known as
the process reaction curve.
In the figure on next page, m.s.t. stands for
maximum slope tangent.
4. Compute the parameter model as follows
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Plant Response
71
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Plant Response
72
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Z-N Tuning Using Reaction Curve
73
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PI Z-N Tuned Reaction Curve
74
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Observation
We
see from the previous slide that the

Ziegler-Nichols reaction curve tuning method
is very sensitive to the ratio of delay to time
constant.
75
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Cohen-Coon Reaction
Curve Method
Cohen
and Coon carried out further studies

to find controller settings which, based on the
same model, lead to a weaker dependence
on the ratio of delay to time constant.
76
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Cohen-Coon Tuning Reaction Curve
77
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Lead-Lag Compensators
Closely
related to PID control is the idea of

lead-lag compensation. The transfer function
of these compensators is of the form:
78
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79
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Classical PID Controllers

This note examines a particular control structure that has become

Eng R. L. Nkumbwa, Copperbelt

General Control System Arrangement

Eng R. L. Nkumbwa, Copperbelt

What is Classical Control?

control involves the choice of a

Eng R. L. Nkumbwa, Copperbelt

Early feedback control devices implicitly or explicitly

Eng R. L. Nkumbwa, Copperbelt

The Current Situation

the abundance of sophisticated

Eng R. L. Nkumbwa, Copperbelt

So, what is a Controller?

is a device that generates an

Eng R. L. Nkumbwa, Copperbelt

Heat Exchanger Control System

Eng R. L. Nkumbwa, Copperbelt

Eng R. L. Nkumbwa, Copperbelt

input error signal represents the amount of

University, School of Technology

The mode of control is the manner in which a control

Four Modes of Controllers

modes of control commonly used for

Other Authors state it differently as follows

Eng R. L. Nkumbwa, Copperbelt

Four Modes of Controllers

Eng R. L. Nkumbwa, Copperbelt

Proportional Controllers (P)

mode of control has characteristic

Three terms commonly used to describe the

also called droop, is deviation that

Eng R. L. Nkumbwa, Copperbelt

Reset or Integral Controller (I)

control describes a controller in which

Definition of Integral Control

that performs the mathematical function

Eng R. L. Nkumbwa, Copperbelt

Example of an Integral Output for a

Eng R. L. Nkumbwa, Copperbelt

Integral Flow Rate Controller

Eng R. L. Nkumbwa, Copperbelt

Integral Flow Rate Controller

Eng R. L. Nkumbwa, Copperbelt

Properties of Integral Control

The major advantage of integral controllers is that they

Eng R. L. Nkumbwa, Copperbelt

Proportional Plus Reset Control (PI)

plus reset control is a combination

Eng R. L. Nkumbwa, Copperbelt

The main advantage of the proportional control mode is

Eng R. L. Nkumbwa, Copperbelt

Eng R. L. Nkumbwa, Copperbelt

The main disadvantage of the proportional control mode

Eng R. L. Nkumbwa, Copperbelt

main disadvantage of the integral mode is

Eng R. L. Nkumbwa, Copperbelt

Eng R. L. Nkumbwa, Copperbelt

Eng R. L. Nkumbwa, Copperbelt

combination of the two control modes is

Eng R. L. Nkumbwa, Copperbelt

Example of the PI for the Plant

Eng R. L. Nkumbwa, Copperbelt

Effects of Disturbance on Reverse