UNIT I

Basic Principles of
Marine Pollution

Chapter 1 Objectives:
1.Give the various meanings of pollution
and origin or sources of pollution
2.Distinguished marine pollution from
other types of pollution
3.Understand the seaborne trade and
marine pollution
4.Explain the meaning of ships pollution
according to MARPOL 73/78
5.Differentiate and identify the types of
marine pollutants according to
MARPOL 73/78
6.State the different characteristics of
marine pollutants

OVERVIEW

The oceans are the biggest

stores of water on earth.
Water leaves the oceans
through evaporation and
then enters again through
rainfalls, rivers, waterfall
and groundwater.
About 70 percent of earth
is composed of water.
(Atlas of the Oceans 1994)

Marine Pollution term

became common mainly
due to the oceans and
adjacent seas becomes
the receptor of almost all
kinds of refuse coming
from shore and those
disposed off by ships.

The oceans as an integral

part of the earth should be
protected by enacting
laws and regulations
through drafting
international conventions,
conferences and forums
which aims to prevent or
control marine pollution
like MARPOL 73/78.

Pristine elements of the Earth

POLLUTION
Prevention

Recycle

Incident

Reuse

waste
Disposal
to
Facility

Reductio
n
Clean up

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO
MARINE POLLUTION AND
PREVENTION

INTRODUCTION

Our environment in its

pristine form is
aesthetically beautiful and
pleasing to behold.
However the environment
is not something to be
worshiped or preserved
merely for preservations
sake.

For life, man must use the

environment and with
billions of lives on earth,
the environment must be
used to sustain those
lives
(Sampson, 1996, p. 1)

The increase of both oil

tankers and passenger
ships correspondingly bear
significant impacts in the
water of the seas and
oceans.

Seemingly, the need to

continue creating
awareness and vigilance
on marine pollution is
greater today than in the
past.

THE VARIOUS
MEANINGS OF
POLLUTION

1. The New Lexicon

Dictionary of the English
Language (1996) denotes
that the word pollution is
anything that makes
something unhealthy.

2. Pollution is something
that makes a pure thing
impure.
3. Scientifically, however,
pollution is the chemical,
gaseous and organic
wastes that contaminate
the air, land or water.

Anything that pollutes

these elements (air, soil
and water) is called
pollutant.

The following are

some definitions of
pollution according to
their type:

1. Air Pollution
Meaning:
It is also called atmospheric
pollution
or
aerospace
pollution. It refers to the
presence in atmosphere of
one or more pollutants
that physically harmful to
human, plants, animals
and property.

Sources:
The release from Mans
penetration of space such
as air rocket debris and
fuel exhausts.

 The release of chemicals

and particulates into the
atmosphere by industry
and motor vehicles such
as
carbon
monoxide,
sulfur
dioxide,
chlorofluorocarbons (CFC),
and nitrogen oxides.

 The Greenhouse Effect or

Global Warming can fall
under the type of air
pollution.

2. Water Pollution
Meaning:
It refers to the alteration
of water in a way that
makes it less usable for
human beings, fauna or
flora or infusions to
property than it is in its
pure state.

SOURCES:
Pollutant come from the
use of inorganic nitrogen
fertilizer that poisons
human and farm animals.
Pollutant integrated in the
water through direct and
indirect process causes
contamination.

3. Sound Pollution
Meaning:
Anything that goes
beyond the normal
decibels and annoying to
our ears.

4. Solid Waste Pollution

Meaning:
This pollution refers to
wastes or refuse arising
from human and animal
activities that are
normally solid and are
discarded or considered as
useless or unwanted.

Sources:
Discarded
garbage
rubbish
demolition debris
food wastes
street litters

5. Hazardous Wastes
Meaning:
It refers to wastes or a
combination of wastes
that pose or create
hazards to human health
or living organisms for the

 following reasons: nondegradable, can be

biologically magnified and
tends to cause
detrimental cumulative
effects.

Sources:
Discarded:
chemicals
radioactive substances
biological wastes
flammable waste
explosives

6. Marine Pollution
Meaning:
An introduction by man,
directly or indirectly, of
substances or energy into
the marine environment
(including estuaries)
resulting in such
deleterious effects as
harmful to living
resources, hazards to

 human health,
hindrance to marine
activities including fishing,
impairment of quality for
use of sea water and
reduction of amenities.
(United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development
[UNCED], 1982 Art. 1)

WHAT ARE THE

ORIGINS OF MARINE
POLLUTION

Origins of Marine Pollution

1.Land-based and coastalbased activities
2.Continental Shelf-Drilling
3.Sea-bed Mining
4.Ocean dumping
5.Vessel source pollution
6.Atmospheric sources
pollution

1. Land-based and
coastal-based activities
Land based source
contributes as estimated
70% of all marine pollution
(UNCED, Agenda, Chap.
17).

The pollutants originate

from Human settlement,
Land-use, Construction of
coastal infrastructures,
Agriculture, Forestry,
Urban development and
Tourism industries

 In developing countries,
less than 10% of urban
wastes are subjected to
treatment and only a small
fraction of it meets the
standard quality.

 According to UNCED the

pollution sources from
coastal-based activities
come from an estimated
one-half of the worlds
population which grows 75
percent before end of 21st
century.

 The hazards of the

pollution include red tides,
excessive plant growth in
water due to an over
abundance of nutrients,
bacterial contamination,
wetland destruction, and
pollution from local and
upstream sources.

2. Continental ShelfDrilling
Continental shelf is the
shallow part of the sea
floor immediately adjacent
to a continent.
(Bush, 1997)

 Continental shelf includes

the sea-bed and subsoil of
the submarine areas
adjacent to the coast but
outside the area of the
territorial sea to a depth of
200 m. or beyond this
limit.

 The exploitation of the

resources of the oceans has
been a growing concern of
marine environmentalist and
geologist of our times,
especially in some countries
where even stricter
measures of environmental
safety are frequent violated.

 The potential of continental

shelf to supply the
industries with rich
minerals paved the way to
the process of shelf drilling
of resources such as gas,
oil, sands, gravel, gold and
diamonds.

 The pollution impacts of

the operational activities
and extraction of such
mineral deposits from the
ocean floors are believes to
be contributors to marine
pollutions.

3. Sea-bed Mining
The process of mining at a
depth of more than 15,000
feet of an open ocean and
thousand of miles away
from the nearest land is a
pollution threat

 The mining ships are

expected to remain on
their ocean station in 5
years at time, working
non-stop to transfer the
sea-bed minerals to
auxiliary vessels

 Marine environmentalist are

yet assessing the potential
impacts of pollution of
these operations as well as
the pollution risk of
deposits that these mining
ships are harvesting from
the ocean floor (e.g.
nickels, coppers, gold, etc.)

4. Ocean Dumping
In the 1940s, the nuclear
industry had chosen the
open oceans as a
convenient site for dumping
their nuclear wastes.

 The London dumping

convention (LDC) of 1972
prohibits the dumping of
the high level radioactive
wastes.

 However, it was only the

high level waste that was
prohibited. The low level
wastes, though they also
contain radioactive waste
and isotopes, such as
plutonium and strontium
were not prohibited.

 The London dumping

convention (LDC) of 1972
was amended in November,
1993 wherein dumping of
industrial wastes at sea
together with incinerating
waste had been totally
prohibited and enter into
force 01 Jan 1996.

 Greenpeace is a concerned
organization advocating
for complete prohibitions
of dumping and remain
vigilant with regard to
open ocean dumping which
can be done out of sight.

5. Vessel source pollution

Vessel sourced pollution
comprises only 10 % from
direct shipping operations
and another 10% from
dumping from ships.
(UNCED, Agenda 21, 1992)

 The threat of polluting the

marine environment from
the vessels is considered
significant because of the
growth of seaborne trade
and the kind of cargo being
carried by the ship.

 The causes of threat from

vessel-sourced pollution
come from intentional
discharge operations as
well as operational
discharges.

 Operational sources comes

from spills of oil resulting
from routing operations
such as loading,
discharging and bunkering.
This normally occurs in
ports or an oil terminal.

 However, majority of the

spilled quantity is small.
Some 92% involved
quantities of less than 7
tons.
(International Tanker Owners
Pollution Federation Report
[ITOPF]. 1999).

 Accident is another source

of pollution from ships.
They are normally caused
by the grounding and
collision of ship.

 Fishing vessels also

contribute to marine
pollution. These vessels
carry large quantities of oil
and fish processing
facilities on board. They
stay for several months at
seas and discharge marine
pollutants.

6. Atmospheric sources
pollution
Early in 1982, the depletion
of ozone layer over the
Northern latitude was
found to be creating a hole
in the atmosphere.

 This is similar to the one

that was discovered in
Antarctica.
Many scientists believed
and it became a common
belief that the burning of
fossil fuels contributes to
the depletion of the ozone
layer.

 Relatively, most industries

today use fuels that are
produced by energy.
Burning fossil fuel for
transportation is one of the
major sources of
atmospheric pollution.

 Industry is a major user of

fossil fuel and substantially
produces greenhouse
gases and air pollution.

 Excessive emissions from

burning forests result in
severe air pollution and
atmospheric pollution.

 Contributory effects on the

ozone depletion come from
man-made halon and
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
that are released into the
atmosphere.

THE SEABORNE TRADE

AND MARINE
POLLUTION

The most important

concept of pollution as far
as seafarers and shipping
are concerned, focuses on
marine pollution from
ships.

 Sources of land base

pollution:
By- products of industry
Waste from chemical and
pesticides used by
Agriculture
Effluents discharge from
urban coastal areas

 The percentage
contributed by pollution
coming from ships is
significant because the
supply of oil and hazardous
substances for industries
and others based on land
is being transported by
seas and oceans by ships.

 From the shipping activity,

a great quantity of oil
enters the seas as a result
of normal tanker
operations.

 These operations include

the cleaning of holds,
which takes place during
ballast voyage, about 4
percent of the carrying
capacity remains and about
half of this could be lost
overboard unless retained
on board in slop tanks.

 The IMO reported that of the

estimated 1.5 million metric
tons of oil that enter the sea
each years as a result of
marine transportation losses
about 66percent are from
vessel operation discharges.
(Manual on Oil Pollution,
IMO, 1988)

 Apart from pollution

coming from shipboard
routine operations, the
risk of pollution coming
from maritime accidents is
always present.

 The pollution from ships

operations is dwarf by the
pollution cause by
maritime accidents in
which over the years a
large number of oil has
already been spilled.

 Over the years major sea

disasters spilling great
amount of pollutant has
arouse the interest of
countries around the world
because of it affect flora
and fauna of the seas and
oceans.

 To name a few maritime

incidents:
1.Torrey Canyon 1967 U.K.
2.Amoco Cadiz 1978 France
3.Atlantic Empress 1979
Trinidad &Tobago
4.Exxon Valdez 1989
Alaska, USA

 Based on experience by
countries affected by the
maritime
accidents/disasters, it is
generally accepted that oil
spills have contributed to
the degradation of marine
environment.

 However confirmation
report states a number of
these incidents, despite
their large size, caused
little or no environmental
damage as the oil did not
impact coastlines
(ITOPF, 1999)

 Nonetheless, the rate of

increase of oil and
chemical being
transported through
merchant ships shall
continue to rise in
response to the growth of
trade .

 For this reason the IMO

has established rules and
regulations for the
prevention and control of
pollution, the MARPOL
73/78 with amendments
and annexes.

MARINE POLLUTION
ACCORDING TO THE
MARPOL CONVENTION

Meaning according to
MARPOL 73/78

Marine Pollution based on

MARPOL 73/78 can be
defined as one that
particularly involves the
introduction of substances
and energy into the
environment of the seas
and

 oceans coming from

either the day to day
operations of the ships or
damaged vessels caused
by marine accidents that
harmfully affects the
marine environment.

MARPOL 73/78 is
concentrated on pollution
cause by the day-to-day
operations of ships

These activities are as

follows:
a. Discharge of oily residues
from sludge tank
b. Discharge of oily residues
from machinery spaces of
ships and tankers.

c. Discharge of oil and

chemical residues from
cargo tanks and sewage.
d. Loss of overboard
cargoes which are
harmful to marine
environment through
overboard of garbage.

 MARPOL 73/78 is directed

towards the reduction of
marine pollution coming
from damaged vessels due
to marine accidents.

2. Regulations governing
limitations of chemical
carriers for carrying
dangerous goods
3. Provisions on technical
construction of vessels
carrying oil or dangerous
goods

 MARPOL 73/78 has

provisions directed
towards limiting the
damage to the environment
whenever accidents occurs:
1. Regulation concerning
reporting when incidents of
marine pollution occur or
are likely to occur

Pollutants according to
MARPOL 73/78

 Pollutants are substances

or energy that pollute the
waters of the seas and
oceans.

The marine pollutants in

the 5 technical annexes of
MARPOL 73/78 are as
follows:
1)Oil (Annex I enforce 02
Oct 1983)
2)Noxious liquid substance
in bulk (Annex II enforce
06 Apr 1987)

3) Harmful substance in
packaged forms (Annex
III enforce 01 Jul 1992 )
4) Sewage from Ships
(Annex IV enforce 27
Sep 2003)
5) Garbage from ships
(Annex V enforce 31
Dec 1988)

The other two important

annexes to MARPOL:
6)Air Pollution (Annex VI)
7)Unwanted Aquatic
Organism in Ballast Water
(Annex VII)

Annex VI has been

adopted but ratification is
not yet substantially met.
(appended to the Protocol
of 1997)
Annex VII is proposed
addition to the annexes.
(adopted 1977 Res.
A.868(20) for inclusion)

Oil as a Marine Pollutant

 Oil is the number one

marine pollutant carried
by ships.
Oil means petroleum in
any form including crude
oil, fuel oil, sludge, oil
refuse, refined products
(except petrochemicals).

 Oil also include the

white oil but not whale
oil or vegetable oils
(IMO, MARPOL 73/78, Annex 1)

 Included in the list of oil

under MARPOL are as
follows:
1)Asphalt Solutions
2)Oils
3)Distillates (Concentrates)

4) Gas Oil
5) Gasoline Blending
Stock
6) Gasoline
7) Jet Fuels
8) Naphtha

 Oils can be generally

classified as either crude
or refined products
according to their viscosity
(measure of resistance to
flow)

 The viscosity of oil

decreases with the rise in
temperature but to a
varying degree depending
on the type of crude from
which it is derived and the
treatment it has
undergone.

Characteristics of Crude
Oils

Characteristics of Crude Oil

Specific gravity 15/15
degrees C
Initial boiling point
degrees C
Kinematic Viscosity
Centistokes cst at 40
deg C

800 to 900 kg/cubic

meter
30 to 125
3 to 100 (15-20,000)
but can be as much
as at 40 deg C

Pour point degrees C -30 to +25 but can

lower or as high as
43
Flashpoint (Abel)
degrees C
Sulphur % wt.

-18 to 190
0.08 to 5

Density (Specific Gravity)

Oil normally floats and
begin to spread when
introduced or spills in the
water.
Oil that sinks means the
oils density exceeds that
of water.

Density refers to mass per

unit of a given material.
Specific Gravity means the
relative gravity which is
the ratio of the mass of a
given material (pure water
1.000 SG or 1cubic meter /
ton)

Importance of knowing oil

properties:
1)Influence the buoyancy of
oil in water
2)Influences the behavior in
the sea surface
3)Influence the rate of
natural dissolving process

Boiling Point and Boiling

Range
Oil ignites because of its
vapors.
It is the vapor therefore that
is given off by oil that sets
fire and not the oil itself.
Evaporation is linked to the
boiling point and boiling
range.

Evaporation is linked to
the boiling point and
boiling range.
The lower the boiling
points and boiling ranges
are the faster the
evaporation can occur.

Kinematic Viscosity
Viscosity is the measure
of resistance to flow.

Standard viscosity:
1)Group 1 density of up to
0.9200ton/cubic meter and
viscosity of up to 14
Cst/40degrees Centigrade

2) Group 2 density of
plus or minus 0.9900
ton/cubic meter and
viscosity of up to
130Cst/80degrees
centigrade.
(British Standard Institute &
International Standard
Organization, 1982)

3) Redwood Scale 1
temperature100degree
s Fahrenheit
BSI G1 40degrees & G2
80degrees centigrade
ISO G1 40degrees & G2
100degrees Centigrade

Centistokes (Cst) is a
unit of kinematic viscosity.
Engine builders generally
specify
centistokes/50degrees
Centigrade basis.

Pour Point
It refers to the
temperature of oil below
wherein the oil becomes
semi-solid and will not flow
which varies from -35deg C
to +40deg C

The Flash Point

It is the lowest
temperature at which
sufficient vapor exist
above the oil to yield a
flammable mixture.

These is a concern in the

clean up operation in
which safety must be
extraordinarily be ensured
specially in cleaning newly
spilled oils.

They easily ignite until

more volatile components
have evaporated and
dispersed in the
atmosphere.

Solubility
There are some components
of oil that are soluble in
water.
When compared to
evaporation, solubility is
only small but highly affects
toxicity to marine life.

Asphaltenes Contents
It highly influences he
formation and stability of
water in oil emulsion.
Low Asphaltene oils
generally do not form
stable emulsion.

Characteristics of
Petroleum Products

 The characteristics of
products derived from
refining crude oils depend
on the nature of the crude
and the process to which
they have been subjected.

 Gasoline (motor Spirits)

Specific Gravity 15/14deg.
C. & 0.6800-0.7700
ton/cubic meter
Boiling Range 30 200
deg. C
Flash Point - 40 deg. C

 Kerosene
Specific Gravity 15/15 deg.
C. & 0.7800 ton/cubic meter
Boiling Range 160 285 deg.
C.
Kinematic Viscosity 37.78
deg. C. 1.48
Flash Point (Pensky
Martens) 55 deg. C.

 Gas Oil
Specific Gravity 15/15 deg.
C. & 0.8400 ton/cubic meter
Boiling Range 180 360 deg.
C.
Kinematic Viscosity 37.78
deg. C. 3.30
Flash Point (Pensky
Martens) 55 deg. C.

 Fuel Oil
(light/medium/heavy)
Specific Gravity 15/50deg. C.
& 0.9250 0.9650 ton/cubic
meter
Kinematic Viscosity 37.78
deg. C. 49-862
Flash Point (Pensky Martens)
90 deg. C. upward

 Lubricating Oils
These are highly refined
oils
The applications vary
widely in specific gravity
and viscosity

Noxious Liquid
Substances (NLS) in
Bulk as Marine
Pollutant

 These are substances

which when introduced
into the sea can cause
hazards to human life and
aquatic resources.

Noxious Liquid Substances

shall be divided into four
categories as follows:

Revised Annex II of MARPOL 73/7

RESOLUTION MEPC.118(52)
Adopted on 15 October 2004

Category X: NLS which, if

discharged into the sea from
tank cleaning or deballasting
operations, are deemed to
present a major hazard to
either marine resources or
human health and, therefore,
justify the prohibition of the
discharge into the marine
environment.

Category Y: NLS which, if

discharged into the sea
from tank cleaning or
deballasting operations, are
deemed to present a hazard
to either marine resources
or human health or cause
harm to amenities or other
legitimate
uses of the sea and
therefore justify a
limitation on the quality
and quantity of the

Category Z: NLS which, if

discharged into the sea
from tank cleaning or
deballasting operations, are
deemed to present a minor
hazard to either marine
resources or human health
and therefore justify less
stringent restrictions on the
quality and quantity of the
discharge into the marine

Other Substances: which

have been evaluated and
found to fall outside
Category X, Y or Z, at
present, considered to
present no harm to marine
resources, human health,
amenities or other
legitimate uses of the sea
when discharged into the

GESAMP -

The Joint
Group of Experts on the
Scientific Aspects of
Marine Environmental
Protection

Pollution from Harmful

Substances (HS) in
Package Form

 Harmful Substances in
packaged form are those
substances that are
identified as marine
pollutants in the
International Maritime
Dangerous Goods Code
(IMDG Code)..

 The IMDG Code is an

international standard
governing the transport of
substances in packaged
form.
It is made up of more than
10,000 pages contained in
five loose-leaf volumes.

 The IMDG Code gives

detailed instructions for
safe packaging and
storage of dangerous
substances, including
precautions necessary in
relation to other cargoes.

 An ad hoc panel of
representatives from the
IMO and the GESAMP were
requested to develop a
means by which substances
carried by sea could be
classified according to
potential hazards they pose
if released in marine
environment.

 The definitions of
packaged form described
in Annex III of MARPOL
73/78 is similar to those
used in the IMDG Code.

 Harmful substances in
packaged form carried by
ships can escape into the
marine environment when
swept overboard due to
bad weather or accidental
release through collision.

 Packaged form is defined as

the form on containment
specified for harmful
substances in the IMDG Code
and carriage of harmful
substances is prohibited
except in accordance with
the provisions of Annex III of
MARPOL 73/78.

Sewage from Ships

 Sewage from Ships

according to the technical
Annex IV of MARPOL 73/78
refers to the following:
1)Drainage and other
wastes from toilets,
urinals and WC scuppers.

2) Drainage from medical

premises (dispensary,
sick bay, etc.) via wash
basins, wash tubs and
scuppers located in
such premises.

3) Drainage from spaces

containing living
animals.
4) Other waste waters
when mixed with the
drainage defined
above.

Garbage from the Ships

 It refers to all kind of

victuals, domestic and
operational wastes,
excluding fresh fish and
parts thereof, generated
during the normal
operations of the ship and
liable to be disposable of
continuously or periodically.

 Fresh fishes and their

parts are not included in
the garbage from the ships
Technical Annex V,
MARPOL 73/78.