Chapter 5

GEOPHYSICS
Mechanical

Wave Measurements

Electromagnetic

Wave Techniques

Geophysical Methods

Mechanical Wave Measurements

Crosshole Tests (CHT)
Downhole Tests (DHT)
Spectral Analysis of Surface Waves
Seismic Refraction
Suspension Logging

Electromagnetic Wave Techniques

Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)
Electromagnetic Conductivity (EM)
Surface Resistivity (SR)
Magnetometer Surveys (MT)

Mechanical Wave Geophysics

Nondestructive measurements ( s < 10-4%)

Both borehole geophysics and non-invasive

types (conducted across surface).

Measurements of wave dispersion:

velocity, frequency, amplitude, attenuation.

Determine layering, elastic properties,

stiffness, damping, and inclusions

Four basic wave types: Compression (P),

Shear (S), Rayleigh (R), and Love (L).

Mechanical Wave Geophysics

Compression (P-) wave is fastest wave;

easy to generate.

Shear (S-) wave is second fastest wave.

Is directional and polarized. Most
fundamental wave to geotechnique.

Rayleigh (R-) or surface wave is very close

to S-wave velocity (90 to 94%). Hybrid
P-S wave at ground surface boundary.

Love (L-) wave: interface boundary effect

Mechanical Body Waves

Initial

P-wave

S-wave

Mechanical Body Waves

Amplitude
S

R
Time

Oscilloscope
Source

Receiver (Geophone)

Mechanical Waves (Compression)

P - Wave Velocities
Steel
Intact Rocks
Weathered Rocks
Ice
Till
Sand
Clay
Sea Water
Fresh Water

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

Compression Wave Velocity, Vp (m/s)

8000

Mechanical Waves (Shear)

S - W ave V elocities
Steel
Intact Rocks
Weathered Rocks
Ice
Till
Sand
Clay
Sea Water

}V

Fresh Water

=0
1000

2000

3000

Shear Wave Velocity, VS (m/s)

4000

Geophysical Equipment

Seismograph

Spectrum Analyzer

Portable Analyzer

Velocity Recorder

oscilloscope

Seismic Refraction
ASTM D 5777

Note: Vp1 < Vp2

Determine depth
to rock layer, zR
Source
(Plate)

zR

x1
x2
x3
x4

t1

t2
Vertical Geophones
t3
t4

Soil: Vp1
Rock: Vp2

Seismic Refraction

T r a v e l T im e (s e c o n d s )

Horizontal Soil Layer over Rock

0.020

xc
zc
2

0.015

V
V

p2
p2

V
V

p1
p1

1
Vp2 = 4880 m/s

0.010

xc = 15.0 m
1
Depth to Rock:

t values

0.005

Vp1 = 1350 m/s

zc = 5.65 m

0.000
0

x values

10

20

30

40

50

Distance From Source (meters)

Shear Wave Velocity, Vs

Fundamental measurement in all solids

(steel, concrete, wood, soils, rocks)

Initial small-strain stiffness represented

by shear modulus:

G0 = Vs2

(alias Gdyn = Gmax = G0)

Applies to all static & dynamic problems at

small strains ( s < 10-6)

Applicable to both undrained & drained

loading cases in geotechnical engineering.

Crosshole
Seismic
Testing
Equipment

Crosshole Testing

Oscilloscope

ASTM D 4428

Pump
x = fctn(z)
from inclinometers

Paul Mayne/GT

Shear Wave Velocity:

Vs = x/t
Downhole
Hammer
(Source)
Test
Depth

packer
Note: Verticality of casing
must be established by
slope inclinometers to correct
distances x with depth.

Slope
Inclinometer

PVC-cased
Borehole

Velocity
Transducer
(Geophone
Receiver)
Slope
Inclinometer

PVC-cased
Borehole

Downhole Seismic
Testing Equipment

Downhole Testing

Oscilloscope

Pump

Horizontal Plank
with normal load

x
t

z1

Hammer

z2

packer

Horizontal
Velocity
Transducers
(Geophone
Receivers)

Test
Depth
Interval

Shear Wave Velocity:

Vs = R/t

Paul Mayne/GT

R12 = z12 + x2
R22 = z22 + x2

Cased
Borehole

In-Situ Surface Wave Testing

Signal
Analyzer
Accelerometer

Source

Sensors

Layer 1

Rayleigh
Surface
Waves

Layer 2
Layer 3
Layer 4

Shear Wave Measurements

Seismic Piezocone Test (SCPTu)

Seismic Piezocone Test

Obtains Four Independent
Measurements with Depth:
Hybrid of Penetrometer
with Downhole Geophysics
Cone Tip Stress, qt
Penetration Porewater Pressure,u
Sleeve Friction, fs
Arrival Time of Downhole Shear

Wave, ts

Vs
fs
u2
u1

60o

qc

Automated Seismic Source

Electronicallyactuated
Self-contained
Left and right
polarization
Modified beam
uses fin to enhance
shear wave
generation
Successfully
tested to depths of
20m
Capable of being
used with traditional

Downhole Shear Wave Velocity

Anchoring System
Automated Source
Polarized Wave
Downhole Vs with
excellent soil
coupling.

Complete Set of Shear Wave Trains

Mud Island Site A, Memphis TN

Sounding Memphis, Shelby County, TN

qt (MPa)

Depth (m)

10

20

fs (kPa)
30

40

100

200

Vs (m/sec)

u2 (kPa)
0

300

1000

2000

3000

10

10

10

15

15

15

15

20

20

20

20

25

25

25

25

30

30

30

30

35

35

35

35

10

100

200

300

400

Seismic Flat Dilatometer (SDMT)

Seismic DMTs at UMASS, Amherst

Lift-off Pressure
po (bars)
0
0

Expansion Pressure
p1 (bars)
5

10

Travel Time of
Shear Wave (ms)
15

20

40

60

0
SDMT1

Depth (m)

SDMT4
2

6
6

SDMT
DMT 21
DMT23
DMT

SDT 3
4
DMT

SDMT 4
SDMT 5

10

10

10

10

12

12
12

12

SDMT5

80

More Measurements is
More Better

Geophysical Methods

Electromagnetic Wave
Techniques

Electromagnetic Wave Geophysics

Nondestructive methods

Non-invasive; conducted across surface.

Measurements of electrical & magnetic

properties of the ground: resistivity
(conductivity), permittivity, dielectric,
and magnetic fields.

Cover wide spectrum in frequencies (10

Hz < f < 1022 Hz).

Electromagnetic Wave Geophysics

Surface Mapping Techniques:

Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)
Electrical Resistivity (ER) Surveys
Electromagnetic Conductivity (EM)
Magnetometer Surveys (MS)

Downhole Techniques
Resistivity probes, MIPs, RCPTu
2-d and 3-d Tomography

Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)

GPR surveys conducted on gridded areas

Pair of transmitting and receiver antennae

Short impulses of high-freq EM wave

Relative changes in dielectric properties

reflect differences in subsurface.

Depth of exploration is soil dependent (up

to 30 m in dry sands; only 3 m in wet
saturated clay)

Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)

Xadar

Sensors & Software

GeoRadar

Illustrative Results from Ground

Penetrating Radar (GPR)
Crossing an underground utility corridor

Illustrative Results from Ground

Penetrating Radar (GPR)

Illustrative Results of
Ground Penetrating
Radar (GPR)

Geostratigraphy

Examples of Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)

Useful in Locating Underground Utilities

Results from Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)

Results from Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)

Electrical Resisitivity Measurements

Electrical Resistivity (ER) Surveys

Resisitivity R (ohm-m) is an electrical

property. It is the reciprocal of conductivity

Arrays of electrodes used to measure changes

in potential.

Evaluate changes in soil types and variations

in pore fluids

Used to map faults, karst features (caves,

sinkholes), stratigraphy, contaminant plumes.

Electrical
Resisitivity
Measurements
What will be gained by
changing electrode
spacing?

Depth of ER survey:
i.e., greater spacing
influences deeper

Electrical Resisitivity Measurements

Electrical Resisitivity Measurements

Resistivity Values (ConeTec & GeoProbe, 1997)
Weathered Rocks
Glacial Till
Sands & Gravels
Loose Sands
Loam
Clay

10

100

1000

Bulk Resistivity, (ohm-meters)

10000

Electrical Resistivity

Electromagnetic Conductivity (EM)

Magnetometer Surveys (MS)

Measure relative changes
in the earths' magnetic
field across a site.

Applicability of In-Situ Tests

CLAY S

SILTS

SANDS

GRAV ELS

Cobbles/ Boulders

In-Situ Test Method

SPT
CPT
DMT
PMT
VST
Geophysics
0.0001

0.001

0.01

0.1

Grain Size (mm)

10

100

1000

In-Situ Testing - Objectives

Select in-situ tests for augmenting,

supplementing, and even replacing borings.

Realize the applicability of various in-situ

methods to different soil conditions.

Recognize the complementary nature of insitu direct push methods with conventional
rotary drilling & sampling methods.

Recognize values for utilizing these methods

and quality implications for their underuse.

A.P. Van den Berg Track Truck