Business Research

Methods
(CURMCS223)
M. SIKWILA
CONTACT: 0736024908
March, 2015

Introduction
The need to do research or an Inquiry
is varied. But the main ones include:
a) Adding to knowledge
b) Evaluation of existing knowledge
and explain further
c) Answer Questions
d) Test theories or hypothesis
e) Find solutions to problems

Way of understanding the World

Phenomenon
We can understand how things work in
three ways:
Experience
Reasoning
Research
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Experience
Draw on individual accumulation of
body of knowledge and skills obtained
through contact with facts and events
in your environment.
Consult those with experience (experts)
Using experience you could come up
with hypothesis and questions about
the real world.

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Reasoning:
Type of reasoning
1. Deductive reasoning
2. Inductive reasoning
3. Inductive deductive reasoning

Deductive Reasoning
Deductive Reasoning
(Aristote)
This approach follows logic: For
examples
All human beings walk on two legs
John is a human being
Subsequently John walks on two legs.

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All plants revolve round the Sun and
Earth revolves round the Sun the
earth is a planet.
Thus, we move from general;
logically to a particular case.
Valid conclusions are deduced from
valid premises.

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The deductive reasoning lost its
importance because it was noticed
that it was not related to observation
and experience. This makes it more
of a mental exercise. In the
deductive reasoning empirical
evidence as a basis of proof is
superseded by authority or mental
reasoning only. This kind of reasoning
had and adverse effect on science.

Observation basis of science

Francis Bacon (1600c) argued that
deductive reasoning was not
objective, but promoted
preconceived ideas and these in turn
biased the conclusion.

Inductive Reasoning
Francis Bacon proposed inductive
reasoning
This kind of reasoning leads to
hypotheses formation and
generalization of individual case.
Collect data and confront it with
theory, this will maintain complete
objectivity.
The inductive reasoning demands
empirical evidence for verification.

Inductive Deductive
Reasoning
The Inductive Deductive approach
led to:
1. The suggestion of hypotheses
2. The logical development of these
hypotheses
3. The clarification and interpretation
of scientific findings and their
synthesis into a conceptual
framework.

Research (discovery of
Truth)
There are many definition as to what
research is. However, no definition is
100% correct. The most important thing is
to understand the concept and apply it
correctly.
Kerlinger, F.N. (2000) define research as
The systematic, controlled, empirical and
critical investigation of hypothetical
propositions about the presumed relations
among natural phenomena.

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Others use the concept of research to refer to
the process of using scientific methods to
expand knowledge in a particular field of study.
The research approach also employs inductive
deductive approach.
Research is self correcting
Uses accepted scientific method
Can be disapproved by other professions, i.e.
Findings. Incorrect results will be found out and
rejected or corrected.

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Research is a combination of both
experience and reasoning and is the
most successful approach to the
discovery of truth.
_________________

Assumptions: Social Reality (Burrel

& Morgan, 1979)
Assumption
1. Ontological Kind Internal or external to
an individual
2. Epistemological kind Concern basis of
knowledge its nature & form how it can be
acquired and how communicated to other
human beings. Epistemological
assumption tell us which knowledge can
be acquired or obtained through
experience.

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Knowledge of social behaviour is
either hard or soft If hard need
observation (natural science). If soft
subjective and cannot follow natural
science.
If knowledge is hard it is referred to
as positivist and follow natural
science. Soft knowledge is referred to
as anti-positivist.

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3. Concern Human nature
(assumption): The relationship
between human beings and their
environment. Human beings are both
subject and object of study (social
science).
Human beings respond mechanically
to environment
Human beings are initiators of their
own actions.

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Are human beings controllers of
environment or controlled by
environment.
Determinism Voluntarism
(extremes)
Most social scientist-take the middle
road.
These three assumptions lead to
choice of methodology.

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4. Methodology All the previous
assumptions have implications for
methodology or methodological
concerns of the researcher.
Researchers (hard-objective) followexperiments, surveys, positivist
approach.
(soft-subjective) follow- anti-positivist
approach.

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Stages of searching for the truth:
1. Theological stage (primitive to explain
behaviour in terms of spiritual or supernatural
terms/entities
2.Metalphysical stage
(modification of uses abstractions or
forces/depersonalize beings of earlier theology
3. Positive stage (observation and
reasoning as a means of understanding
behaviour. Scientific description, observation
and experiments.

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The central belief of the logical
positivists is that the meaning of a
statement is, or is given by, the
method of verification It follows
from this that unverifiable
statements are held to be
meaningless, the utterances of
traditional metaphysics and theology
being included this class

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Methodological procedures of natural
science may be directly applied to the
social sciences positivism here implies a
particular stance concerning the social
scientist as an observer of social reality.
End results of social scientist can be
interpreted just like that of natural science.
Positivism-involves a definite view of the
social scientist as analyst or interpreter of
his subject matter.

Features of Positivism Method

Assumptions and Nature of Science
1. Determinism Events have causes (this link
can be studied event determined by other
circumstances) a law should be there because
of universe has order, follow them & you will
be able to predict & control.
2. Empiricism That which is variable by
observation; and evidence, data yielding proof
or strong confirmation in probability terms of
a theory or hypothesis in a research setting.

Five steps in the process of

empirical science
a) Experience starting point of scientific
elementary level
b) Classification Data arrangement
c) Quantification analysis using
mathematical means
d) Discovery of relationships among
phenomenon
e) Approximation to the truth science
proceeds by gradual approximation to the
truth.

What is Science
Static & dynamic view of science:
Static science is an activity that contributes
systematised information to the world.
Scientist discover new knowledge and add to
existing knowledge. Science is thus seen as
an accumulation of body of findings, the
emphasis being chiefly on the present state
of knowledge and adding to it. Dynamic
view takes the above plus discovery that
scientist make.

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Model implies Theory: Used
interchangeably both are seen as
explanatory devices or schemes
having a broadly conceptual
framework. Theory is provisional
does not cover everything can be
modified.

The Tools of Science

Concepts and the hypothesis:
1. Concepts: Express generalisation
from particulars e.g. Democracy,
achievement, etc. Each one is a word
representing an idea or concept.
Concepts give meaning to the real
world. Your ability to think and
comprehend the world we live in
depends on the command of
concepts.

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2. Hypothesis cause and effect or
educated guess. If you have a
problem form a hypothesis.
Hypotheses & concepts play a crucial
part in the scientific method.

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3. Principle of parsimony Explain in
the economic way. Simple theory is
to be preferred to a complex one.
4. Generality start with observation
of particular, the scientist generalize
his findings to world at large.

The Scientific Method

A scientific approach
involves standards and
procedures for
demonstrating the
empirical way and its
findings. Standards and
procedures are methods.

The Research Process and Procedure

(Start of the process)
1. Definition of concepts method and
methodology.
. A method is an instrument, tactic, for
collecting data, solving problems and
arriving at new knowledge information.
. Methodology is a strategy: a term
often very loosely used in business to
describe the way in which professions
proceed in their analysis of a problem.

2. Research Process
continue
To follow a certain acceptable research
process is important for your findings
to be acceptable or valid. Accepted
procedures should be followed, for
example:
1. The formulation of the problem of
study and deciding on the focus.

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Before you start doing your research
work, you need to be clear on:
Subject matter, background
information
What is it that you would like to do
i.e. Focus.
State the problem clearly. A clear and
precise formulation of the problem
will assist you in later phases of the
investigation.

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Degree of clarity in formulating a
problem depends on:
i. Complexity of the problem
ii. Amount of information already
known about the problem.

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2. Choice of Units and variables to be
analyzed and confronted with data.
a. Unit of Analysis
b. Variable of analysis
Example:
Problem of analysis Income
distribution among workers in the
agricultural sector.

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We are interested in workers in the
agricultural sector. Hence object of
investigation is workers in the
agricultural sector is the Unit of
analysis.
Income distribution is the particular
characteristic that we are interested
in. Hence: the variable of our
analysis.
Workers (Fixed). Income received-

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The focal point of the study is always
the unit of analysis.
3. Objective(s) or aim(s) of the study.
Having stated the problem the
objectives of your research should be
clearly stated, should be achievable
and not too many.

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4. Significance of the study to the
society
Explain how your subject is useful or
why it is important that this subject
should be studied.
Who has an interest in your research
results
What do we know already about the
topic.
How will this research add to

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5. Research Questions, Hypothesis
Hypothesis statement:
Hypothesis is a statement indicating a
relationship or its absence, between two or
more of the chosen variables and stated in
a way as to carry clear implication for
testing. There are two types of
hypotheses : a) Null hypothesis and
Alternate. Null implies no relationship and
this is what you are testing.

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Some ideas on the formulation of questions
or hypothesis:
(1)It is important to choose an area that you
know or are familiar with.
(2)Widen your experience (reading widely
on your chosen subject to start with.
For example: If you are interested in
agricultural finance of small farmers, also
read about the large commercial farmers.

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This will help in improving your
questions/hypotheses.
(3) Brainstorm to start with (i.e. How
your questions or hypothesis should
be stated)
(4) Do not allow a method/technique to
lead you into deciding on your
question(s)/hypotheses.

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5. The hypotheses should assist in choosing
of an appropriate research strategy and
method for your research.
6. Put emphasis on the statistical
hypotheses, the Null form
7. Whatever, hypothesis you formulate,
should be testable statistically. So be sure
about the form of causality, positive or
negative relationship of variables.

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8. Hypothesis should be brief and clear
as to what is it to be tasted.

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Your hypothesis should
clearly state the relationship
between two or more
variables that you intend to
analyse.
10. You should have a reason
based on general theory, why
the hypothesis should be
9.

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11. On the basis of the research
findings or evidence, the hypothesis
is accepted or rejected, then link it
with original problem objectives and
questions.
12. Literature review , theory/previous
studies.
_______________

Methodology (what strategy) and

methods of data collection
Research strategy refers to the
general approach that you choose for
your research.
The traditional strategies used in
collection of data include:
1. Case study
2. Survey
3. Experiments

Characteristics of a case
study
All case studies involve undertaking
some applied Analysis
Most case studies involve fieldwork
In most cases the material from a
case study is original

Characteristics of a Survey
Surveys involve selection of samples
and collection of data from a defined
or known population. The format in
surveys is standard.
Surveys obtain data at a given point
in time (cross-section), and the
reasons for collecting data, vary,
depending on the requirements of
the investigation.

Characteristics of
Experiments
The main features of experimental
research strategy is that the
researcher/or investigators changes
or controls one variable and then
observe the effect of the changes or
controls one variable and then
observe the effect of the changes on
another variable of interest.

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Example, take a sample from a
known population and carry out the
experiment by controlling certain
variables and observe the reaction
on the chosen sample.
Given a function: Y = Y(x); a change in
value of x and observe the effects
of the change in value of Y.

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Call x independent variable and Y
the dependent variable.
Response
stimulus
Dependent variable
Independent
variable
At this stage of the research process
mention the (instrument(s) to be
used to collect data.

Collection of data
Data is collected from a known
population
a) Censuses survey collect population
data
b) Sample survey collect sample data
The data is of two types the secondary
data which is already collected and
documented and the primary data,
which is a new data that the
investigator collects

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Recall the generality assumption,
from the sample survey we
generalise to the population from
which the sample is drawn.
____________________

Types of data
Qualitative type: This kind of data or
information is non-numerical. It assist
the researcher in explaining the
numerical data
Quantitative data: This kind of data is
in numerical form and can be used in
statistical analysis.

Data Processing
The data collected need to be processed.
There are many ways of processing data
such as:
Classification of observations
Coding of observations coding is the
process of assigning code values E.G. 385
-9, 311 to the various alternative answers
to survey questions either when
constructing the questionnaire (pre-coding)
or after data collection (post-coding).

Discussion Issues
Are assumptions necessary in
Research? Discuss.
Discuss the significance of all steps
in a research process.

Data Processing
The data collected need to be
processed. There are many ways of
processing data, these include:
Classification of observations
through;
Coding of observations
For example:
If female adult 02
If male adult
01

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If female child 03
If male child
04
This is the kind of coding that can
assist in classification of data. Coding
is usually done at the questionnaire
or interview level.

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The researcher after fieldwork make
notes or rearranges the data in a way
that will be easy to analyse. The
investigator may need to expand on
the information collected, for
example, data tape recorded need to
be processed.

Analysis of data
The process of data analysis entail
three activities:
Data reduction
(coding, etc)
Data display, i.e., display data in
graphic formats such as matrices,
charts, figures, graphs and tables.
Conclusion drawing/ verification

Dealing with data

Scatter diagrams
Correlation Analysis
Regression Analysis (linear
relationships)
Other statistical tests of hypotheses.

Data Interpretation
This stage of research process can be
combined with data analysis. Data
interpretation links the real world
phenomena with the theory. It brings
out the significance of the data
Statistical methods such as
regression analysis using correlation
are used.

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Regression analysis and significance of
the relationship, should be supported
(backed) by relationship derived from
tables, simple two-way graphs. This
will show if relationships are
consistent with the theory.

Writing of Research Report

A good well presented report will be
acceptable to examiners than a
poorly presented one, but with good
material.
Use of your report:
1) A project/ dissertation can be
submitted for you degree
2) Part of it can be sent to professional
journal
3) You could produce a book

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4) Any other group that might be
interested in your work could ask you
to present or publish your work
_____
Some of the things to note in your
final report.
In your final report mention the
problems experienced and the
possible causes.

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Review other surveys or finished and
published reports
The report should state the
objectives of the project and the
whole research process leading to
the final conclusion
Indicate your contribution to the
subject or discipline. What is the
importance of your results to the
policy maker.

Conclusion (end of research

process)
The conclusion sums up the research
work touches on the main points and
make the final statement about your
research. It makes the reader to
understand the purpose of the
research. The conclusion should be
brief and to the point.

Historical Research
Historical research deals with ex post
information. Literature review in a
scientific research could be viewed
as historical.
Cohen & Manion (1990) define
historical research as the systematic,
and objective location, evaluation of
evidence in order to establish facts
and draw conclusions about past
events.

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In business and industrial sectors it is,
perhaps, important to understand, the
industrial history of a people. How did the
present industrial set up come about.
Historical research brings benefit to the
sector and assist in solving some problems
of historical nature. Helps in understanding
between, for example, politics and
industrial production or for example, the
lack of factor of production such as capital.

Development Research
Development research deals with
descriptive research as opposed to
experimental research. Descriptive
research deals with what has
occurred, while experimental
research make things to happen.
Most of the research and
investigation in business and
economics describes what has
already happened.

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The objective being to examine
behaviour and choice of individuals,
groups and institutions. In doing so
the researcher describes contrast,
classifies, analyses and interpret the
events.

Three Types of Descriptive Research

1) Longitudinal
2) Cross Sectional
3) Trend or prediction
4) The three types of research
described present relationships
among variables and changes in
relationships overtime.

Terminology of Developmental
Research
Longitudinal describe studies done
overtime and deal with human
development.
Example: From development economics
a. Traditional
b. Transitional
c. Take off
d. Maturity
e. High Mass Consumption

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Another example: In marketing
Product life Cycle: Sales over Time
a) Development stage
b) Introduction stage
c) Growth stage
d) Maturity stage
e) Decline stage

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In agriculture: Agricultural
Development
1. Traditional
2. Feudal
3. Commercial

Cross - Sectional
Different respondents are studied at
the same time. There could be a
series of these cross sectional
studies if the researcher wishes to
compare. A cross sectional study
produces a Snapshot of a population
at a chosen time, for example,
national census of a group of
enterprises.

Trend Study
Where selected factors are studied
continuously, i.e., weekly, monthly or
yearly, the term trend study is often
used.
________

SURVEYS
Surveys gather cross sectional data,
i.e. Data is obtained at a particular
point in time with a view of:
a) Describing the nature of existing
conditions
b) Identifying standards against which
existing conditions can be
compared.
c) Determining the relationships that
exist between specific events

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Large scale or small scale surveys
all use similar data collection
techniques. For example, structured
or semi structured interviews, self
completing or postal questionnaires.
There are no limits to cases covered
by surveys.

Survey Preliminary studies

(Plan)
The planning of survey is a
combination of technical and
organizational decision.

Questions to ask
What population coverage to aim at?
What information to seek?
How to go about collecting this
information?
How to process and interpret results?

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Sample design (methodology) decided in the
light of:
What is practically feasible
What is theoretically desirable
Accuracy of results
Cost, time and labour involved
Type of sampling
Type of data collection
Methods of tabulation
Miscellaneous items

Preliminary plan of a survey

1. Statement on: Objective(s) or
purpose of the enquiry.
. Clear statement in detail
. Methods to be used
. Why the survey, what questions it
will cover or answer
. What results expected
. How the information will be used.

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2. Population
Define population targeted
Geographical, etc
Covered fully or partially
Method of selecting respondents
Sample in a statistical sense
Sample frame list

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Sample frame: A listing that should
include all those in the population to
be sampled and exclude all those
who are not in the population.
How will you deal with non-response
Follow up approach

Collection of Data
The collection of data will depend on
the size of survey
Questionnaires
Plan how to structure and phrase your
questionnaires.
Errors
Every stage of survey can lead to
errors or errors are made.

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For example:
Sampling error
Interviewing
Questions
Editing
Coding
Tabulation
Anticipate likely sources of error and size.

Fieldwork
Central stage of survey and will
depend on the quality of interviews.
Processing & Analysis
Questionnaire check on : Omissions
Statistical Calculation
Editing scheme is necessary
Tabulation plan
Method of analysis

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Timing & Cost
Timing of investigation
No holidays etc.
When are the results needed
Estimate Cost

Pre-test and Pilot Survey

To find out the re-action of people to
your questionnaires or interviews
Pilot survey a small scale replica of
the main survey

Pilot Study Provides:

1) Adequacy of the sampling frame
2) Variability within the population to
be surveyed
3) Non-response rate to be expected
4) Suitability of data collection
methods
5) Are the questions adequate: ease of
questions, layout, similarities,
clarity, do the answers meet your
objectives.

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6) Are instruments clear
7) Codes for pre- coded questions are
they clear to you.
8) Cost and time spent and how well
are you organized in the field.
9) Approach to the respondents
10)After pilot Improve on your plan.

Survey Sampling Design

Type of sample Design
Bias is one of the sampling problem
that an investigator may encounter.
For a given sample design, the
estimator is the method of
estimating the population parameter
from the sample.
Estimator: Is the sample arithmetic
mean

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Example: E(b) hat
estimator of
the population parameter b.
Bias
E(b) hat = b ; implies unbiased
estimator of b
E(b) hat
b; implies biased
estimator of b

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For any sample design if the
expected value of the estimator is
equal to the population parameter
then estimator is unbiased if not
equal to population parameter, it is
biased.
The difference between the expected
value and the true population value
is termed the bias.

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Bias = (b hat) b
Bias: The tendency for some
extraneous factors to affect the
answers to survey questions or the
survey results in general, in a
systematic way, so that results are
pushed or pulled in some specific
direction.

Decision Errors
Generally the purpose of statistical
inference is to make an educated
guess about what exists in the
population when only a small subset
of cases from the population has
been studied. Since the decision is a
guess, it might be wrong.

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Type 1 error occurs when a null
hypothesis is rejected when it is in
fact true.
Type 11 error occurs when the null
hypothesis is accepted when it is, in
fact false.
Given the validity of the null
hypothesis, the probability that it is
erroneously rejected by these
procedures equals,

, the

Causes of Bias
Three factor that might cause bias
include:
1) Non random method(s) used to select a
sample, in such cases there is a likelihood
of subjectivity.
2) Incomplete or inaccurate sampling Frame
from which a sample is selected.
3) Non response of those included in the
sample which mean the sample will not
be representative of the population.

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Bias through sampling method can
be avoided by using random method
A good sampling design should use a
random method. Note that there are
two main types of sampling: random
or probability sampling and nonprobability sampling.

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In general, a random or probability
method of choosing a sample is
defined as that which allow each of
the members of the targeted
population a calculable probability of
being included in the sample.

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a) Unrestricted Random Sampling:
Give an equal chance to every
member of the population of being
selected. However, in unrestricted
random sampling the investigator
has to replace the members
selected. Hence, unrestricted
random sampling, is sampling with
replacement. It is therefore, likely
that a member may be selected

Simple Random Probability

Sampling
The simple random sampling is done
without replacement. Subsequently,
no member can be selected more
than once in any given sample. In a
simple random probability sampling
each member of the population has a
chance of being included in the
sample.

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Examples of Simple Random
Sampling
1) Tickets mixed in a basket pick one
this represent a simple random
sampling.
2) Pick every nth member of the
population, this represents a simple
random sampling

Methods of Ensuring Randomness in

Selection of Survey Samples

1)Lottery Method:
Number the population and
represent it with marked
balls: 1 to n
Place the balls in a wheel or
something that mixes- then
select required sample.

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2) Use random numbers (table):
Population numbered: 1 to Z; then
sample members are selected from
the table in a systematic fashion.

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In practice use random numbers:
Example. Handout (tables) Random
table
Draw a sample of size 10 from 100
small scale businesses.
Get a list of Business you want to
investigate

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1. Set the three digit numbers:
001, 002, 003, 004, .......010, 099-100
2. Go to Random tables
3. Along the column choose a number
in digits of three below 101 until you
get your sample
4. Jump the repeat numbers.

SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
Another method of sampling: Suppose you
have 6000 small scale businesses and you
want a sample of 300
300/6000 = 1/20
1 20 pick any number at random between 1
20 and then every firm after 20th is picked.
This is not a simple random sampling
because originally the 6000 were not
randomly picked and 1 20 is not randomly
picked.

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The difference between the simple
random sampling and systematic
sampling is that in the systematic
sampling the members are not given
equal chance of being included in the
sample. Once you pick the first
number the others are picked
systematically or follow.

STRATISFIED RANDOM
SAMPLING
In a stratified random sampling the
population is divided into groups or
strata.
For example:
Small scale firms (Businesses)
Middle scale firms (Businesses)
Large scale firms
(Businesses)
The random sampling then take place

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Within the stratum.
Stratified random sampling with a
uniform sampling fraction tends to
have greater precision than simple
random sampling. Because of the
small size of the stratum.

Proportionate stratified Sample

Design
In stratified sampling we do not
require that the sampling fraction be
the same or uniform for each
stratum. But whenever the sampling
fraction is the same for each
stratum, we refer to this as a
proportionate stratified sampling.

Cluster Sampling
The cluster Sampling is ideal when the
population is large and widely dispersed.
The researcher avoids long distance and
at the same time affords adequate
information in order to generalize to the
rest on the population.
In a cluster sampling the population is
divided into cluster or groups. The
cluster units are chosen at a random.

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Multi-Stage Sampling
the use of multi-stage cuts down on cost.
Studies of very large population, such as a
whole country, usually involve multi-stage
sampling. Multi-stage sampling are an
extension of cluster sampling. The
samples are selected in stages. It implies
taking samples from samples. The
sampling is done at random.

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Example 1.
Stage 1
10 Industrial Areas
Stage 2
100 Firms from the areas
Stage 3
10 specific Firms
Example 2.
Provinces

Districts
villages
or towns
individuals

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Example 3.
No of Schools
of pupils

No of classes

No

Non-Probability Sampling
Non-probability sampling it is
frequently used in practice in spite of
its limitations.
Convenience and lower costs per
case are its chief advantages
Common statistical techniques which
assume a random sample should not
be used in non-probability samples

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The main types of non-probability
sampling are:
1. Convenience or Accidental, 2.
Quota, 3. Purposive, 4. Dimensional,
5. Snow ball sampling

Convenience Sampling
This kind of sampling chooses
individuals who are near and these
then constitute the respondents. For
example, firms near to the
researcher can be chosen and form
the required sample.

Quota Sampling
It is similar to stratified sampling. But
in Quota sampling respondents are
not randomly chosen. In a Quota
sampling, a population is divided into
a Quota which in the case of firms it
could be small-scale and large scale
firms a quota for each group could
then be chosen

Purposive Sampling
The researcher picks the respondents
to be included in the sample, using
his/her judgement as to which
respondents to be included.

Dimensional Sampling
This is an extension of Quota sampling
it involves studying the population
and knowing the composition of the
population. The researcher then
includes in the sample all factors of
the population. Within a group you
might want to know certain
attributes and attitudes. It is the
differences within the group.

Snowball Sampling
The researcher knows the
characteristics required. On a small
group the researcher then use this
group as a representative and to help
the researcher to get or identify
others to be included in the sample,
in turn, these people lead the
researcher to others, until the
required sample is obtained.

Tutorial Question
Discuss the advantages and
disadvantages of random probability
sampling and non-probability
sampling for each sampling method
discussed in class.

CASE STUDY
Case studies are based on observation of the
characteristics of the phenomenon or
individual unit to be studied or researched. For
example, a firm, a specific project, a
community. These cases are not chosen
through a formal sampling process, but by
judgemental and a typical relevant case is
chosen. The aim of a case study is to do an indepth analysis of the unit. From the study of
the unit generalization is established for the
population from which the unit is drawn.

Types of observation: case

study
Participant observation: In a
participant observation the
researcher (observer) takes part in
the activity required to be observed.
For example, join the business for
one year or work in a project that
you wish to study. Join the
community or firm in order to get an
insight of the organization.

Continue
Although observation is the main
methodological strategy, various
research instruments or methods of
collecting information or data are
used, depending on whichever is
appropriate, for example; interviews,
questionnaires.

TUTORIAL WORK
1. A researcher (enumerator) used a
single questionnaire for both
smallholder farmers in an estimation
of agricultural production. Comment
on the use of the instrument in the
exercise.
2. Discuss the significance of inductive
and deductive reasoning in the
development of a scientific research
method?

continue
3. Briefly mention and discuss three
kinds of bias related to sampling
design.
4. Explain in detail giving examples the
assumption of Epistemology and
methodology in the nature for social
sciences.