Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Level I
Radiographic Testing
Lesson 1
Introduction to
Radiographic Testing
Radiography
1. In radiography, test objects are
exposed to X-rays, gamma rays
or neutrons, and an image is
produced.
Radiography
2. Radiography is used to test a
variety of products, such as
castings, forgings and weldments. It
is also used heavily in the
aerospace industry for the detection
of cracks in airframe structures,
detection of water in honeycomb
structures and detection of foreign
objects.
Test Objective
The objective of radiographic testing
is to ensure product reliability.
Performing the actual radiographic
test is only part of the procedure.
The test results must then be
interpreted to acceptance standards
by qualified personnel, and an
evaluation of the results must be
made.
Safety Considerations
Radiation can cause damage to the
cells of living tissue, so it is
essential that personnel be aware
and protected. Compliance with
state and federal safety regulations
is mandatory.
Qualification
1. It is important that personnel
responsible for radiographic
testing have adequate training,
education and experience.
2. Guidelines are for the
qualification and certification of
nondestructive testing personnel.
Qualification
3. ASNT has published guidelines
for training and qualifying
nondestructive testing (NDT)
personnel. These guidelines are
known as Recommended
Practice No. SNT-TC-1A:
Personnel Qualification and
Certification in Nondestructive
Testing.
Qualification
4. Recommended Practice No.
SNT-TC-1A describes the
knowledge and capabilities of
NDT personnel in terms of
certification levels.
Qualification
5. Per SNT-TC-1A, there are three basic levels
of qualification applied to NDT personnel:
a. Level I.
b. Level II.
c. Level III.
Certification
1. The formal certification of a person
in NDT to a Level I, Level II and
Level III is a written testimony that
the individual has been properly
qualified.
2. Certification is meant to document
the actual qualification of the
individual in a specific NDT method.
Certification
3. Proper qualification and
certification are extremely
important in modern
manufacturing, fabrication and
inservice inspection due to the
impact on the health and safety
of the public.
Lesson 2
Radiographic Testing Principles
Penetration and
Differential Absorption
1. X-rays and gamma rays have
the ability to penetrate materials,
including materials that do not
transmit light.
Penetration and
Differential Absorption
2. Depending on the thickness and
density of the material, and the
intensity of the source being used,
the amount of radiation that is
transmitted through the test object
will vary.
3. The radiation transmitted through
the test object produces the
radiographic image.
Penetration and
Differential Absorption
4. The following figure illustrates
the partial absorption
characteristics of radiation.
Thicker portions of the test object
or dense inclusions will appear
lighter because of more
absorption of the radiation.
Penetration and
Differential Absorption
Image Distortion
Two possible causes of radiographic image
distortion are:
X-Rays
The conditions required to generate
X-rays are:
1. A source of electrons.
2. A suitable target for electrons to
strike.
3. A means of speeding the
electrons in the desired direction.
X-Rays
Characteristic X-rays: When an
electron from a higher energy level
interacts with an electron in a lower
energy orbit of an atom, then
characteristic X-rays may be
generated.
X-Rays
Continuous radiation: The
generated X-rays have a
continuous energy spectrum and
are not entirely dependent on the
disturbed atoms characteristics.
X-Rays
Bremsstrahlung radiation: This is
a German name for braking or
continuous radiation.
X-Rays
KeV (kilo-electron volts): This unit
corresponds to the amount of
kinetic energy that an electron
would gain when moving between
two points that differ in voltage by
1 kV.
X-Rays
MeV (1 000 000 electron volts):
This unit corresponds to the
amount of kinetic energy an
electron gains when moving
between two points that differ in
voltage by 1MV.
Electron Source
1. When a suitable material is heated,
some of its charged negative
particles (electrons) become agitated
and escape the material as free
electrons.
2. Cathode: In an X-ray tube, a coil of
wire or filament (known as the
cathode) serves as the electron
source.
Electron Target
For industrial radiography
applications, a solid material of high
atomic number, usually tungsten, is
used as the target in the tube
anode.
Electron Acceleration
1. By placing a positive charge on
the anode of an X-ray tube and a
negative charge on the cathode,
free electrons are accelerated
from the cathode to the anode.
2. The electron path should occur in
a vacuum.
Radiation Intensity
1. The number of X-rays created by
electrons striking the target is
one measure of the intensity of
the radiation.
2. Intensity depends on the number
of electrons available at the
cathode of the X-ray tube.
Radiation Intensity
3. Keeping the other factors constant,
an increase in the current through
the tube filament will increase the
cathode temperature, causing
emission of more electrons and
consequently increasing the
intensity of the X-ray beam.
Radiation Intensity
4. Similarly, though to a lesser
degree, an increase in the
applied tube voltage will
increase the beam intensity.
5. The output rating of an X-ray
tube is expressed in volts (kV or
MeV).
Photoelectric Absorption
1. In photoelectric absorption, when
X-rays (photons) with relatively low
energy pass through matter, the
photon energy may be transferred
to an orbital electron. (See the
following figure.)
Photoelectric Absorption
Photoelectric Absorption
2. Part of the energy is expended in
ejecting the electron from its
orbit, and the remainder gives
velocity to the electron.
Photoelectric Absorption
3. This phenomenon usually takes
place with low energy photons of
0.5 MeV or less.
4. This absorption effect is what
makes radiography possible.
Compton Effect
1. When higher energy photons (0.1 to
3 MeV) pass through matter, part of
the photon energy is expended in
ejecting an electron. The remaining
slower energy photons travel at
different angles compared to the
original photon path. (See the
following figure.)
Compton Effect
Compton Effect
2. This process is repeated,
progressively weakening the
photon, until the photoelectric
effect completely absorbs the last
photon.
Pair Production
Pair production occurs only with
higher energy photons of 1.02 MeV
or more. (See the following figure.)
Pair Production
Scatter Radiation
1. The major components of scatter
radiation are the low energy rays
represented by photons weakened
in the Compton process.
2. Scatter radiation is low-level energy
content of random direction.
Internal Scatter
1. Internal scatter is the scattering
that occurs in the object being
radiographed. (See the following
figure.)
Internal Scatter
Internal Scatter
2. Internal scatter affects image
definition by blurring the image
outline.
3. Buildup occurs when scatter in
the forward direction causes an
increase in radiation passing
through matter.
Sidescatter
1. Sidescatter is the scattering from
walls of objects in the vicinity of
the test object or from portions of
the test object that causes rays to
enter the sides of the test object.
2. Sidescatter obscures the image
outline just as internal scatter
does.
Backscatter
1. Backscatter is the scattering of
rays from surfaces or from
objects beneath or behind the
test object. (See the following
figure.)
2. Backscatter also obscures the
test object image.
Backscatter
Gamma Rays
1. Gamma rays are produced by
the disintegration of the nuclei of
a radioactive isotope.
2. Isotopes are varieties of the
same chemical element having
different atomic weights.
Gamma Rays
3. The wavelength and intensity of
gamma waves are determined by
the source isotope characteristics
and cannot be controlled or
changed.
Artificial Sources
1. There are two ways of
manufacturing radioactive
isotopes, or so-called
radioisotopes:
a. By using the by-product of
nuclear fission in atomic
reactors, such as cesium-137
(Cs-137).
Artificial Sources
b. By bombarding certain
elements with neutrons to
make them unstable. Examples
include:
i. Cobalt-60 (Co-60).
ii. Thulium-170 (Tm-170).
iii. Selenium-75 (Se-75).
iv. Iridium-192 (Ir-192).
Artificial Sources
2. These artificial isotopes emit
gamma rays, as well as alpha
and beta particles.
Specific Activity
1. Specific activity is defined as the
degree of concentration of
radioactive material within a
gamma ray source.
2. Specific activity is expressed in
terms of curies per gram or
curies per cubic centimeter.
Specific Activity
3. Specific activity is an important
measure of radioisotopes
because the smaller the source,
the sharper the radiographic
image that can be produced (as
shown in the following figure).
Specific Activity
Half Life
1. The length of time required for
the activity of a radioisotope to
decay to one half of its initial
intensity is called its half life.
2. The half life of a radioisotope is a
basic characteristic and depends
on the particular isotope of a
given element.
Half Life
3. Dated decay curves (similar to
the one shown in the next slide)
are supplied by source suppliers
for each particular radioisotope
and should be used by
radiographers to determine the
exact source intensity.
Common Radioisotopes
Lesson 3
Equipment
X-Ray Equipment
There are three basic requirements
for the generation of X-rays:
1. A source of free electrons.
2. A means of rapidly accelerating
the beam of electrons.
3. A suitable target material to stop
the electrons.
X-Ray Tube
1. The main components of X-ray
equipment are the following:
a. Tube: Enclosed in a highvacuum envelope of heatresistant glass or ceramic.
b. Cathode: To produce free
electrons.
c. Anode: Target which the
electrons strike.
X-Ray Tube
2. Associated with the tube are the
following parts:
a. Equipment that heats the
filament, accelerates and
controls the resultant free
electrons.
b. Equipment to remove the heat
generated by the X-rays.
c. Shielding of the equipment.
X-Ray Tube
3. There are many varieties in the
size and shape of X-ray tubes.
Tube Envelope
1. A tube envelope is constructed of
glass or ceramic that has:
Tube Envelope
a. Prevents oxidation of the
electrode material.
b. Permits ready passage of the
electron beam without ionization
of gas within the tube.
c. Provides electrical insulation
between the electrodes.
Cathode
The cathode of an X-ray tube
consists of:
1. Focusing cup: Functions as an
electrostatic lens.
2. Filament: A coil of tungsten wire
that produces a cloud of electrons
by flowing an electrical current
through it.
Filament Heating
1. A small flow of current through the
filament is enough to heat it to a
temperature that causes electron
emission.
2. A change in the number of emitted
electrons varies with the current flow
through the filament.
3. The tube current, measured in
milliamperes (mA), controls the
intensity of X-rays.
Anode
1. The anode of an X-ray tube is
usually made of copper.
2. Copper and tungsten are the
most common anode materials.
Anode
3. A dense target material is
required to ensure a maximum
number of collisions.
4. Material with a high melting point
is necessary for a target to
withstand the excessive heat.
Focal Spot
1. The image sharpness is partly
determined by the size of the
focal spot.
2. The electron beam is focused so
that it bombards a rectangular
area of the target.
Focal Spot
3. The projected area of the
electron beam is the effective
focal spot (as seen in the
following slide).
4. The size to which the focal spot
can be reduced is limited by the
heat generated in target
bombardment.
Linear Accelerators
There are two types of linear
accelerators:
1. Standing wave linear accelerator
for energy up to 200 MeV.
2. Traveling wave linear accelerator
for energy up to 30 GeV (gigaelectron volts or billion electron
volts).
Accelerating Potential
1. The applied potential between the
cathode and anode determines the
penetrating effect of the produced Xray.
2. The higher the voltage, the greater
the electron velocity along with
shorter wavelengths and more
penetrating power for the generated
X-rays.
Heat Dissipation
1. X-ray generation is a very
inefficient process as most of the
electron energy is expended in
producing heat.
2. Heat dissipation in the X-ray tube
is accomplished by a flow of oil,
gas or water.
Heat Dissipation
3. Efficiency of an X-ray tube
cooling system is the main factor
in determining the duty cycle of
the tube.
Equipment Shielding
1. To prevent unwanted radiation,
lead is used to shield the X-ray
tube.
2. Shielding design varies with
different X-ray tubes, but in all
cases, it serves to absorb that
portion of the radiation that is not
traveling in the desired direction.
Control Panel
1. The control panel of an X-ray
system is designed to permit a
radiographer to set the desired
exposure parameters.
2. The control panel also provides
critical indications for tube
performance, such as the flow of
oil or water in the cooling system.
Radium
1. Radium is a natural radioactive
substance having a half life of
about 1600 years.
2. Most radium sources consist of
radium sulfate packaged in
either spherical or cylindrical
capsules.
Radium
3. Because of its low specific
activity and its long half life,
radium is rarely used in industrial
radiography.
Artificial Radioisotopes
1. The artificial radioisotopes used
in industrial radiography for
gaging purposes are:
a. Cobalt-60 (Co-60).
b. Iridium-192 (Ir-192).
c. Selenium-75 (Se-75).
d. Thulium-170 (Tm-170).
e. Cesium-137 (Cs-137).
Artificial Radioisotopes
2. The following table gives a
summary of the main
characteristics of the most used
isotopes.
Radioisotope Characteristics
Isotope Cameras
1. The equipment to accomplish
safe handling and storage of
radioisotopes is called a camera
or exposure device.
2. These cameras are selfcontained units, meaning no
external power supply is
required.
Isotope Cameras
3. The exposure devices contain
self-locking mechanisms
ensuring safety in accordance
with ANSI and ISO requirements,
in addition to NRC and IAEA
requirements.
Lesson 4
Radiographic Film
Introduction
1. Radiographic film consists of:
a. Base: A thin, transparent plastic
sheet.
b. Emulsion coat: A coat of an
emulsion of gelatin about
0.001 in. (0.003 cm) thick on
one or both sides. The emulsion
coat contains very fine grains of
silver bromide (AgBr).
Introduction
2. Latent (hidden) image:
Exposure of radiation on the film
that cannot be detected until
chemical processing occurs.
3. Visible image: Image on the film
after developed by chemical
processing.
Usefulness of Radiographs
1. Film density: Degree of
darkening on the developed film.
2. Radiographic contrast:
Difference between two film
areas. The darker area (higher
density) has received more
radiation compared to the area
of light density.
Usefulness of Radiographs
3. Definition: Sharpness of any
change in film density.
4. Contrast and definition are
important for a successful
interpretation of radiographs.
Radiographic Contrast
1. The film density D is a logarithmic
value defined as:
D = log10 (I0/I)
where (I0) is the intensity of the
incident light to view the film, and I
is the intensity of the transmitted
light through the film. The higher
the number, the darker the film.
Radiographic Contrast
2. If the intensity of light is 1000
units and the film allows only one
unit of that intensity to pass
through, the film density based
on the previous equation will be:
D = log10 (1000/1) = 3
Radiographic Contrast
3. Radiographic contrast (as shown
in the following figure) is defined
as the difference in the film
density between two selected
areas of the exposed and
developed film.
Radiographic Contrast
Radiographic Contrast
4. Higher contrast is better for film
interpretation.
5. Radiographic contrast is a
combination of:
a. Subject contrast.
b. Film contrast.
Radiographic Contrast
6. Radiographic contrast depends on:
a. Applied radiation energy
(penetrating quality).
b. Contrast characteristics of the
film.
c. Amount of exposure (the product
of radiation intensity and
exposure time).
Radiographic Contrast
d. Film screen.
e. Film processing.
f. Scattered radiation.
Subject Contrast
1. Subject contrast is the relative
radiation intensities passing
through any two selected
portions of material. Subject
contrast depends on the
following factors:
Subject Contrast
a. Type and shape of the test
object.
b. Energy of the applied energy
radiation (wavelength, type of
source).
c. Scattered radiation.
Subject Contrast
2. Subject contrast decreases as
the wavelength of the incident
radiation decreases.
Subject Contrast
3. Higher subject contrast can be
achieved by:
a. Larger thickness variation.
b. Use of different X-ray or
gamma ray energies.
c. Masks.
d. Diaphragms.
e. Filters or screens.
Film Contrast
1. Film contrast is the ability of film
to detect and record different
radiation exposures as
differences in film density.
Film Contrast
2. The relationship between the
amount of exposure and the
resulting film density is
expressed in the form of film
characteristic curves and is
determined by the following
factors:
Film Contrast
a. Film grain size.
b. Chemistry of the film
processing chemical.
c. Concentration of the
processing chemicals.
d. Development time.
e. Development temperature.
f. Agitation in the developer
solution.
Film Speed
1. Film speed is an important
consideration in determining the
proper exposure time to obtain the
desired film density.
2. The next figure illustrates films
with high, medium and low
speeds.
Film Speed
Film Speed
3. Knowing film speed is important
when selecting film for each
particular radiographic testing
task.
Graininess
1. Graininess is the visible evidence of
the grouping into clumps of the
silver particles that form the image
on the radiographic film.
2. The following figure shows the
effect of grain variation on the
image definition.
Graininess
Graininess
3. The degree of graininess of an
exposed film depends on the
following factors:
a. Grain size.
b. The quality of the radiation.
c. Film processing conditions.
d. Type of film screens.
Film Processing
1. Film processing makes the latent
image visible.
2. The following general
precautions must be observed
during film processing:
Tank Processing
The arrangement of a tank
processing (manual processing) unit
is shown in the next slide.
Tank Processing
Tank Processing
1. The tanks for processing solutions
and wash water should be deep
enough for the film to be
submerged.
2. The chemicals in the tanks must
be stirred and the temperature
must be checked with a calibrated
thermometer before turning off the
ambient light.
Tank Processing
3. All required equipment should be
arranged before turning off the
ambient light.
4. All unnecessary materials should
be kept away from the
processing area.
Tank Processing
5. Test the safelights and arrange
them for easy viewing. Follow
the standard recommendations
for regular checking.
6. Lock the door to the darkroom to
prevent accidental exposure to
ambient light.
Tank Processing
7. To load the film inside the hangers,
grasp it by its edges or corner to
avoid fingerprints, bending,
wrinkling or crimping during
handling.
8. Keep the loading area completely
dry.
9. Follow the tank processing
procedures.
Developing
Developing is the chemical process
of reducing silver bromide particles
in the exposed area of the film
emulsion to metallic silver.
Developing
1. Follow the manufacturers
recommendations for developing
temperature and time.
2. Agitate the film during developing
to obtain a uniform development
and to avoid any air bubbles from
attaching to the film.
Developing
3. Use strips of exposed radiographs
to control the developer activity as
a method of regular quality control
checking.
4. Follow the manufacturers
recommendations to replenish the
solution.
Stop Bath
The stop bath, a solution of acetic
acid and water, serves to remove
the residual developer solution from
the film.
1. Running uncontaminated water
for at least 2 min. can be used
as an alternative to the stop
bath.
Stop Bath
2. Manufacturers directions should
be used to make the stop bath
solution.
3. A fresh stop bath solution is
yellow in color and clear under
safelight.
Fixing
1. Fixer, an acidic solution, has two functions on the
film:
Fixing
2. The minimum time required for
fixing is twice the amount of time
necessary to clean the film.
3. Fixing time should not exceed
15 min.
4. Improper fixing shortens the
archival length of the film.
Fixing
5. Film should be agitated in fixing
solution at 2-min. intervals.
6. The replacement of fixing
solution should be determined by
checking the acidity of the
solution.
Washing
After fixing, washing is necessary to
remove the fixer from the emulsion.
1. Each film is washed for a period of
time equal to twice the fixing.
2. Hypo clearing agent may be used
to speed up film washing.
Washing
3. Best results for washing are
obtained with a water temperature
between 65 and 70 F (18.3 and
21.1 C).
4. To avoid any watermarks, film is
immersed in a wetting agent that
also aids in reducing the drying
time.
Drying
The final stage of film processing is
drying.
Lesson 5
Safety
Introduction
1. Radiographers are cautioned to
be aware of the latest effective
safety regulations.
2. Radiation safety practices are
based on the effects of radiation
on the human body and
characteristics of radiation.
Introduction
3. Personnel protection is
dependent upon detection
devices, as well as the proper
use of time, distance and
shielding.
Introduction
4. Agreement States are states that
observe the regulations covering
use, handling and transportation of
radioactive materials approved by
the Nuclear Regulatory
Commission (NRC).
Introduction
5. All of the safety regulations are
designed to limit exposure to the
radiographer and to provide
protection to the general public.
Introduction
6. The radiographer, who is
employed by a licensee of NRC
or who is employed by a
licensee of an agreement state,
must have knowledge of, and
comply with, all applicable
regulations.
Units of Radiation
Dose Measurement
1. The damaging effects of
radiation are dependent on both
the type and the level of energy
of the radiation.
2. For different types of radiation, a
relative biological effectiveness
is applied.
Units of Radiation
Dose Measurement
3. For radiation safety purposes,
the cumulative effect of radiation
on the human body is of primary
concern.
Roentgen (R)
1. The roentgen (R) or sievert (Sv) is
the physical unit of measure of the
ionization of air by X-radiation or
gamma radiation.
Roentgen (R)
2. Roentgen (R) is defined as the
quantity of radiation that will
produce one electrostatic unit
(esu) of charge in one cubic
centimeter of air at standard
temperature and pressure (STP).
Roentgen (R)
3. 1 R of radiation equals absorption
by ionization of about 83 erg (unit
of work or energy in physics) of
radiation energy per gram of air.
4. For practical purposes, mR is
often used, which is:
1 mR = 1/1000 R.
Quality Factor
1. Quality factor takes into account
the biological effect of different
radiations on the human body.
Quality Factor
2. Quality factor values are
determined by the National
Committee on Radiation
Protection. They are summarized
in the following table.
Quality Factor
Working Distance
1. The greater the distance from a
radiation source, the lower the
radiation intensity.
Working Distance
2. The inverse square law is used
to calculate radiation intensities
at various distances from a
radiation source:
I1/I2 = D22/D12
where I1 and I2 are intensities at
distances D1 and D2,
respectively.
Working Distance
3. The same principles hold for
X-radiation. The intensity at a
known distance with
predetermined current and
voltage setting (usually given by
the X-ray tubes manufacturer)
can be determined by applying
the inverse square law.
Working Distance
4. Radiation intensity at any point is
the sum of the primary radiation
and the secondary (scattered)
radiation at that point.
Shielding
1. Materials commonly used for
shielding to reduce personnel
exposures are lead, steel, water
and concrete.
Shielding
2. Shielding cannot stop all of the
energy of X-radiation or gamma
radiation; therefore, it is practical
to measure shielding efficiency in
terms of half value layers.
Shielding
3. Half value layer (HVL) is that
amount of shielding that will stop
half of the radiation of a given
intensity.
Shielding
4. Similarly, shielding efficiency is
often measured in tenth value
layers. A tenth value layer is that
amount of shielding that will stop
nine tenths of the radiation of a
given intensity. (See the
following tables.)
Exposure Area
1. The exposure area should consist
of a room with concrete or block
walls, lined with lead or other
suitable shielding materials.
2. An exposure area can be an
enclosed shielding cabinet large
enough for the test objects and
with reliable safety features.
Exposure Area
3. Controls should be located
outside the exposure area.
4. In field radiography, a safe
distance in relation to exposure
must be secured by:
a. Guard rails or ropes.
b. Legible radiation warning signs.
c. Sufficient shielding.
Exposure Area
5. Only monitored radiographers are
permitted in the radiation area.
6. Keeping a safe distance from the
radiation source is the simplest and
most effective safety consideration
in field radiography.
Occupational Radiation
Exposure Limits
Limitations on individual dosage
greater than those listed in the table
after the next slide may be permitted
with the following conditions:
1. The dose for the whole body does
not exceed 5 rem (0.05 Sv) during
any calendar year.
Occupational Radiation
Exposure Limits
2. The individuals accumulated
occupational dose has been
recorded on NRC Form-4 and
the individual has signed the
form.
Levels of Radiation in
Unrestricted Areas
The following table shows the
exposure limits in an unrestricted
area.
1 hour
1 calendar year
Personnel Monitoring
There are different personnel
monitoring devices required for use
by radiographers and their assistants
during radiographic operations:
Personnel Monitoring
1. Film badges.
2. Thermoluminescent dosimeters
(TLDs).
3. Optically stimulated
luminescence badges (OSL).
Personnel Monitoring
4. Direct reading dosimeters.
5. Pocket dosimeters.
6. Electronic personal dosimeters.
The last two types should be
capable of measuring exposures
from 0 to 200 mR (0 to 2 mSv).
Radiation Survey
Instrumentation Requirements
1. Radiographers should have
operable and calibrated radiation
survey meters.
2. Each exposure device shall be
accompanied by a survey meter.
3. The meters shall have a range of
2 mR (0.02 mSv) per hour through
1 R (0.1 Sv) per hour.
Radiation Surveys
1. Operable and calibrated radiation
survey instrumentation should be
available at an exposure area.
Radiation Surveys
2. When working with radioisotopes,
a radioactive survey shall be made
around the camera to ensure the
source has been returned to its
shielded condition. This is known
as a 360 sweep.
Radiation Surveys
3. Before storing each sealed
source, a radiation survey shall
be made to ensure that the
source is in its shielded position.
4. All these readings shall be
recorded on a radiation report
survey.
Detection and
Measurement Instruments
There are different instruments that
measure radiation based on the
ionization produced in a gas. These
instruments fall into two categories:
1. Instruments that measure total
dose exposure.
2. Instruments that measure dose
rate (radiation intensity).
Pocket Dosimeters
The pocket dosimeter is a small
device, about the size of a fountain
pen. (See the following figure.)
Pocket Dosimeters
Pocket Dosimeters
1. The operation is based on two
main principles:
a. Radiation causes ionization in a
gas.
b. Similar electrical charges repel
each other.
2. The dosimeter should be properly
charged (the indicator on zero
scale) before using.
Pocket Dosimeters
3. Pocket dosimeters are designed
with a sensitivity that permits
them to be scaled in doses from
0 to 200 mR (0 to 2 mSv).
4. Pocket dosimeters must be
calibrated annually, per NRC
regulation, and the date should
be labeled on them.
Optically Stimulated
Luminescence (OSL) Badges
1. OSL badges measure beta (b),
gamma, neutron and
X-radiation exposures.
2. The OSL is a thin strip of
specially formulated aluminum
oxide crystalline material.
Optically Stimulated
Luminescence (OSL) Badges
3. OSL badges detect energies
from 5 keV to 40 MeV for
photons, 150 keV to 10 MeV for
beta particles and 40 keV to
35 MeV for neutrons.
4. The dose measurements range
from 1 mrem to 1000 rem.
Ionization Chambers
1. Ionization chambers measure
the radiation intensity (dose rate)
in milliroentgen per hour or
millisievert per hour.
2. Ionization chambers typically
attain an accuracy of 15%,
except in low-intensity radiation
areas.
Ionization Chambers
3. In areas of low-intensity
radiation, radiation intensity
measurements are usually made
with geiger-mueller counters.
4. Ionization chambers should be
calibrated annually.
Geiger-Mueller Counters
1. Geiger-mueller counters are highly
sensitive radiation detection
devices.
2. Geiger-mueller counters are
typically accurate to 20% for the
quantity of radiation to which they
are calibrated.
3. They should be calibrated annually.
Electrical Safety
1. Because X-ray machines use
high-voltage circuits, the
radiographer must comply with
safe electrical procedures.
2. This is more serious specifically
for portable X-ray equipment,
which requires certain electrical
precautions.
Electrical Safety
3. During operation or service of
X-ray equipment, the following
precautions, applicable to both
permanent and portable
installations, should be observed
carefully.
Electrical Safety
a. Do not turn power on until
setup for exposure is
completed.
b. Ensure that grounding
instructions are complied with.
Electrical Safety
c. Regularly check power cables
for signs of wear, and replace
them when necessary.
d. Avoid handling power cables
when the power is on. The
machines operational key
should be removed when not in
use.
Electrical Safety
e. If power cables must be handled
with the power on, use safety
equipment such as rubber
gloves, rubber mats and
insulated high-voltage sticks.
f. Be sure that water and moisture
are not in close contact with
power cables.
Electrical Safety
g. Ensure that capacitors are
completely discharged before
checking an electronic circuit.