Air

Pollution

Air & Its Pollution

A person needs per
day about
1.4 kg of water
0.7 kg of food
14 kg of air

Air Pollution
Air pollution may be defined as the presence
in the air (outdoor atmosphere) of one or
more contaminants or combinations there
of in such quantities and of such durations
as may be or tend to be injurious to
human, animal or plant life, or property,
or which unreasonably interferes with
the comfortable enjoyment of life or
property or conduct of business.

Air Pollutants
A pollutant can be solid (large or sub-molecular),
liquid or gas .
It may originate from a natural or anthropogenic
source or both.
It is estimated that anthropogenic sources have
changed the composition of global air by less
than 0.01%.
However, it is widely accepted that even a small
change can have a significant adverse effect
on the climate, ecosystem and species on the
planet.
Examples of these are acid rains, CO, SOx, NOx,
SPM, RSPM,CO2, ozone in the lower
atmosphere, and photochemical smog.

Air Pollution and Public Opinion

Not a new phenomena: Smoke from Burning of
Coal
Problems in many urban areas in late 1800s and
early 1900 due to coal use
1000s of deaths attributed to air pollution
episodes in London

large number of pollution sources

restricted air volume
failure to recognize problem
CO presence: lethal

Photochemical smog

Sources of Air Pollution

Why Air Quality?

1.Point source

stacks of thermal power stations, brick kilns, lime kilns, boiler etc.

2. Area source
Cluster of point sources, spill of chemicals, crude/product spills in ocean etc.

3. Line source
Car, scooter, train, aircraft: white line in sky behind a jet plane?

Type of Pollutants
Why Air Quality?

1. Primary pollutants

pollutants which are being emitted into the air directly by point/area/line
sources.
Examples: CO, NOx, SOx, Pb, SPM, RSPM, VOCs

2. Secondary pollutants
pollutants which are getting formed from primary pollutants in the
atmosphere. Some of the reactions are catalyzed by sun light.
Examples: acid rains, smog, O3, H2O2, formaldehyde,
peroxy acetyl nitrate (PAN)

Why Air Pollution?

Main cause: Combustion
Fuel (C,H,S,N,Pb,Hg,ash) + Air (N2 + O2)
CO2, CO, NOx, SOx, Pb, Hg, SPM,
RSPM(PM10), VOCs

Coal:
Crude based products:
Natural gas:
Biomass:

450 MT
120 MT
60 NBCM
350-400 MT
(NOX,SPM/RSPM)

Why Air Pollution contd..

Usage/handling of Chemicals: paint,
varnishes, perfumes, CFCs, petrol
pumps, etc.
Cement handling, insulation on
winding of
motors/alternators/transformers

Combustion processes
1. Electricity generation
Total generation capacity: 162,366.80 MW
Thermal

: 104,423.98 MW (64.6%)

Hydro

: 36,953.40 MW (24.7 %)

Nuclear

: 4560.0 MW (2.9%)

Renewable

: 16,429 MW ( 7.7%)

2. Transport

: 18 % of total energy

Liquid fuels

: 97.5% total petroleum products

Electricity

: 1.0% of total

3. Industry
4. Domestic sector
5. Agriculture

:coal, petroleum products, electricity

:biomass, petroleum products, electricity
:electricity, petroleum products

Coal combustion having S

If the Indian coal is burnt at a rate of 1.00 kg per second having a
sulphur content of 1.00 %, what is the annual rate of emission of SO2.
The sulphur in the ash is found to be 5 %.

Sulphur burnt: 1.00 x 1/100=0.01 kg/s

Sulfur converted to SO2 = 0.01 x 0.95 = 0.0095 kg/s
S + O2 =SO2
SO2 produced = 0.0095 x 64/32 = 0.019 kg/s or 600,000 kg/y

Pollutants generation

Fuel Combustion
S in coals:0.5-2.5%

N2+O2=NOx

Transport

India, Diesel:350 ppm

2010: 50 ppm
US/EU: 15 ppm

India: 2000
Octane number enhancer:
Tetraethyl lead, GM 1922

Industrial
SOx

51%

Agencies responsible for

monitorring air pollution in India
The Air (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Act, 1981
Central pollution control board (CPCB)
State pollution control boards (SPCB)/committees
Set procedure : ambient air, industry wise norms
FIR against the firm/sealing of the industry

National
Ambient Air
Quality
Standards
(NAAQS)
in India,
1994
Environmentally
Sensitive areas (ESA):
landscape, wild life &
historical importance

Pollutants

SulphurDioxide (SO2)

TimeConcentration in ambient air

weighted Industrial Residential, Sensitive
average
Areas
Rural &
Areas
other Areas
Annual 80 g/m3
Average*
24
hours**

120
g/m3

60 g/m3

15 g/m3

80 g/m3

30 g/m3

60 g/m3

15 g/m3

Oxides of
Nitrogen as
(NO2)

Annual 80 g/m3
Average*
24
hours**

120
g/m3

80 g/m3

30 g/m3

Suspended Particulate
Matter (SPM)

Annual
Average*

360
g/m3

140 g/m3

70 g/m3

24
hours**

500
g/m3

200 g/m3

100
g/m3

120
g/m3

60 g/m3

50 g/m3

150
g/m3

100 g/m3

75 g/m3

Respirable Particulate
Annual
Matter (RPM) (size less than Average*
10 microns)
24
hours**
Lead (Pb)

Ammonia1

Carbon Monoxide (CO)

* annual mean of 104 measurements in a year

** 24/8 h values should be met 98% of time in a year

Annual 1.0 g/m3 0.75 g/m3

Average*

0.50
g/m3

24
1.5 g/m3 1.00 g/m3
hours**

0.75
g/m3

Annual
Average*

0.1 mg/
m3

0.1 mg/ m3

0.1
mg/m3

24
hours**

0.4 mg/
m3

0.4 mg/m3

0.4
mg/m3

8
hours**

5.0
mg/m3

2.0 mg/m3

1.0 mg/
m3

1 hour

10.0
mg/m3

4.0 mg/m3

2.0
mg/m3

NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS:2009

Particulate Matter
Suspended Particulate Matter
Fine Particulate Matter

What is Particulate Matter?

Particulate matter, or PM, is
the term for particles found
in the air, including dust, dirt,
soot, smoke, and liquid
droplets.
These small particles can
remain suspended in the air
for long periods of time.
Some particles are large or
dark enough to be seen as
soot or smoke. Others are
so small that individually
they can only be detected
with an electron microscope.

Sources of Particulate Matter

PM10

Types of Fine Particulate Matter

Primary Particles
These particles are emitted directly
from air pollution sources such as
power plants, factories, automobile
exhaust, construction sites, unpaved
roads, wood burning etc.

Secondary Particles
Formed in the atmosphere indirectly
when gases from burning fuels react
with sunlight and water vapor and
are chemically transformed into
particles,
secondary
pollutants:
solid/liquid

A few definitions
Solid or liquid particles with sizes from
0.001 100 m may be in air
General term for these is aerosols
Dust originates from grinding or crushing
Fumes are solid particles formed when
vapors condense
Smoke describes particles released in
combustion processes
Smog is used to describe air pollution and
is combination of smoke+fog

Hukka

Hukka

What Is PM10 & PM2.5 ?

Hair cross section (70
m)

Human Hair (70 m diameter)

PM10
(10m)

PM2.5
(2.5 m)

Health Effects from Particulate Matter

Many scientific studies have
linked breathing PM to a
series of significant health
problems, including:
aggravated asthma
increase in respiratory symptoms
like coughing and difficult or
painful breathing
chronic bronchitis
decreased lung function
premature death

Health Effects of Particulate Matter

Impact depends on particle size, shape
and composition
Large particles trapped in nose
Particles >10 m removed in
tracheobronchial system
Particles <0.5 m reach lungs but are
exhaled with air
Particles 2 4 m most effectively get
deposited in lungs

Stokes Law
Aerodynamic diameter: Diameter of the sphere having the same settling
velocity as that of the particle
Given by George Gabriel Stokes in 1851

Where,
acceleration of gravity (g), m/s2
particle diameter (d), m
density of particle (p), kg/m3
density of medium (m), kg/m3
viscosity of medium (), kg/m s

Other Effects From Particles

Visibility Impairment
PM is the major cause of
reduced visibility (haze).
Aesthetic Damage
Soot, a type of PM, stains and
damages stone and other
materials, including objects
such as monuments and
statues.
Plant Damage
PM can form a film on plant
leaves interfering with
photosynthesis and plant
growth

Particulate Matter and Taj

The deposition of
SPM on the
shimmering
white marble of
the Taj Mahal
imparts yellow
tinge to the
marble surface

Emission norms for heavy Diesel vehicles

Norms

CO( g/km)

HC (g/km)

NOx (g/km)

PM(g/km)

1991Norms

14

3.5

18

1996 Norms

11.2

2.4

14.4

India stage
2000 norms

4.5

1.1

8.0

0.36

Bharat
stage-II

4.0

1.1

7.0

0.15

Bharat
Stage-III

2.1

1.6

5.0

0.10

Bharat
Stage-IV

1.5

0.96

3.5

0.02

Indian Emission Standards (4-Wheel Vehicles)

Standard

Reference

Date

Region

India 2000

Euro 1

2000

Nationwide

Bharat Stage II

Euro 2

2001

NCR*, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai

2003.04 NCR*, 10 Cities

2005.04 Nationwide
Bharat Stage III Euro 3

2005.04 NCR*, 10 Cities

2010.04 Nationwide

Bharat Stage IV Euro 4

2010.04 NCR*, 10 Cities

* National Capital Region (Delhi)

Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Bangalore, Hyderabad,

Ahmedabad, Pune, Surat, Kanpur and Agra

Carbon Monoxide
Most abundant air
pollutant
Produced by incomplete
combustion
insufficient O2
low temperature
short residence time
poor mixing
Major source (~ 77%) is
motor vehicle exhaust

Carbon Monoxide

Carbon Monoxide

Colorless and odorless

When inhaled, binds to hemoglobin in blood to form
carboxyhemoglobin, reducing the oxygen carrying capacity
brain function reduced, heart rate increased at lower levels
asphyxiation occurs at higher levels

% COHb = (1- e-t) (CO)

% COHb = Carboxyhemoglobin as % saturation

CO = Carbon monoxide conc. in ppm
= 0.402 h-1
= 0.15 %/ ppm CO
t = exposure time in hours

Carbon Monoxide

Carbon Monoxide
Typical Levels
busy roadways: 5 50 ppm
congested highways: up to 100 ppm

Emission norms for heavy Diesel vehicles

Norms

CO( g/km)

HC (g/km)

NOx (g/km)

PM(g/km)

1991Norms

14

3.5

18

1996 Norms

11.2

2.4

14.4

India stage
2000 norms

4.5

1.1

8.0

0.36

Bharat
stage-II

4.0

1.1

7.0

0.15

Bharat
Stage-III

2.1

1.6

5.0

0.10

Bharat
Stage-IV

1.5

0.96

3.5

0.02

Sulfur Oxides (SOx)

SO2, SO3, SO42
formed during
combustion of fuel
containing sulfur
H2S released is
converted to SO2
10 Tg/yr natural
sources
75 Tg/yr
anthropogenic
sources

SOx

Sulfur Dioxide: Health Effects

High concentrations of SO2 can result in
temporary breathing impairment.
Longer-term exposures to high concentrations of
SO2, in conjunction with high levels of PM,
include respiratory illness, alterations in the
lungs' defenses, and aggravation of existing
cardiovascular disease
Short-term exposures of asthmatic individuals to
elevated SO2 levels may result in reduced lung
function.

Sulfur Dioxide: Environmental

Effects
Acid Rain

Decreased
Visibility

Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx)

Primarily NO and NO2
NO3, N2O, N2O3, N2O4,
N2O5 are also known to
occur
Thermal NOx created
by oxidation of
atmospheric N2 when T
> 1000 K
Fuel NOx from
oxidation of N in fuel

NOx

Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx)

NO has few health effects, but is oxidized
to NO2
NO2 irritates lungs and promotes
respiratory infections
NO2 reacts with hydrocarbons in presence
of sunlight to produce smog
NO2 reacts with hydroxyl radicals to
produce nitric acid acid precipitation

Lead
Sources:
gasoline (historical)
metals processing

Highest air Pb
concentrations
in the vicinity of
nonferrous and ferrous
smelters, and battery
manufacturers.

Pb

Lead: Health Effects

Accumulates in the blood, bones, and soft
tissues.
Adversely affects the kidneys, liver, nervous
system, and other organs.
Excessive exposure to Pb may cause
neurological impairments, such as seizures,
mental retardation, and behavioral disorders.
May be a factor in high blood pressure and
subsequent heart disease.

Photochemical Smog
hydrocarbons + NOx + sunlight
photochemical smog (oxidants)
primary
oxidants
produced:
ozone (O3)
formaldehyde
peroxyacetyl
nitrate (PAN)

Ozone depletion mechanism

Different chemicals are responsible for the destruction of

the ozone layer
Topping the list :
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
man-made, non-toxic and inert in the troposphere
In the stratosphere are photolysed, releasing reactive chlorine
atoms that catalytically destroy ozone

Photochemical Smog

Photochemical Smog

Ozone: Health Effects

Increased incidents of respiratory
distress.
Repeated exposures to ozone:
Increased susceptibility to respiratory
infection
Lung inflammation
Aggravation of pre-existing respiratory
diseases such as asthma.
Decrease in lung function and increased
respiratory symptoms such as chest pain and
cough.

Ozone: Environmental Effects

Ozone also affects
vegetation and ecosystems
reductions in agricultural and
commercial forest yields
($0.5 billion/yr in US alone)
reduced growth and
survivability of tree seedlings
increased plant susceptibility
to disease, pests, and other
environmental stresses
(e.g., harsh weather).

Ozone Revised Standards

In 1997, the 1-hour ozone standard of
0.12 parts per million (ppm) was replaced
with a new 8-hour 0.08 ppm standard.

Units of Measurement
g/m3 mass:volume
parts per million (ppm) volume:volume

22.414 L mol T
ppm C

/ 273 K 101.325 kPa/P2

MW 1000 L/m3
-1

where C = concentration in g/m3

Landmark datelines to capital

clean

April 1995: Mandatory fitting of catalytic convertors

April 1996: Low sulphur diesel introduced
April 1998: Introduction of CNG buses in Delhi
Sept 1998: Complete removal of lead in petrol
Dec 1998: Restrict plying of goods vehicles during the
day
Sept 1999: Amendment of Motor Vehicles Act to include
CNG
April 2000: Private vehicles to be registered only if they
conform to Euro II standards
April 2000: Eight-year-old commercial vehicles phased
out
Nov 2002: Conversion of all public transport buses to
CNG