What Is Digestion

Process whereby the body breaks

down food into absorbable nutrients.
Digestive tract is a long tube
surrounded by muscles.

 Digestion is a process involving the hydrolysis

of large and complex organic molecules of

foodstuffs into smaller and preferably watersoluble

molecules

which

can

be

easily

absorbed by the GIT for utilization by the

organism
Digestion of macromolecules also promotes

the absorption of fat soluble vitamins and

certain minerals

Mouth
Teeth grind food to reduce the size.
Saliva released to help moisten
food.
Some carbohydrate digestion
begins.
Tongue pushes food to the back of
the mouth to start swallowing reflex.
Food passes through the esophagus

Stomach
Distended pouch. Strong circular
muscles at each end control food
entering and leaving.
Mixes
food
by
muscular
contractions causing food to break
up further.

Small Intestine
Most digestion and absorption
occurs in small intestine.
Bile released to emulsify (break up)
fat.
Pancreatic enzymes released to
digest carbohydrates, proteins and
fats.
Final digestive enzymes in intestinal
lining break down carbohydrates,

Final Digestion Product

Final digestion products absorbed by
cells lining small intestine.
Carbohydrates:
Monosaccharides

Proteins:
Amino acids
Chains of 2 or 3 amino acids

Fats:
Fatty acids
Glycerol
Monoglycerides

Absorption
Water-soluble nutrients and short
fatty acids released directly into
the bloodstream.
Longer fatty acids, fat-soluble
vitamins, and fat-like compounds
such as cholesterol are not watersoluble.

Indigestible Matter
After digestion and absorption of
nutrients, indigestible matter, such
as fiber moves into the large
intestine.
Indigestible matter is compacted by
removing water.
Little nutrient absorption occurs in
large intestine.

Metabolism
Chemical reactions that occur in
the body:

Building and maintaining body tissues

Regulating body functions
Supplying energy

For metabolism to occur the body

needs:
Water
Energy
Oxygen

Biological Importance
Food
large
molecules
Digestion

small molecules

small molecules
Absorption

BLOOD

vitamins,
minerals,
monosaccharides
and
free amino acids

Digestion and absorption of

carbohydrates
Carbohydrates present in
the diet

Polysaccharid
es

Starch
Glycogen

Disaccharide
s

Monosaccharid
es

Lactose
Glucose
Maltos
Fructos
e
e
Sucros
Pentose
e
In GIT, all complex carbohydrates are
converted to simpler monosaccharide
form which is the absorbable form.

 Complex carbohydrates into simple

Polysaccharide into monosaccharide

Details of digestion of
carbohydrates
2 Types of enzymes are important for the
digestion of carbohydrates

Amylases

convert polysaccharides to
disaccharides
Salivar
y
Amyla
se
Pancreat
ic
Amylase

Disaccharida
ses
Convert disaccharides
to monosaccharides
which are finally
absorbed
Maltas
e
SucraseIsomaltase
Lactase
Trehalase

Digestion in mouth

DIGESTION OF CARBOHYDRATES

Digestion of Carbohydrate starts in the

mouth, upon contact with saliva during
mastication.
Saliva contains a carbohydrate splitting
enzyme called salivary amylase , also
known
as
ptylin.

Action of ptylin (salivary

amylase)
Location: mouth
It is -amylase and requires Cl
ion for activation with an
optimum pH of 6.7 (Range 6.6 to
6.8).
However, ptylin action stops in
the stomach when the pH falls to
3.0.- acidic pH

Starch, Glycogen and dextrins

(Large polysaccharide molecules)

- Amylase

Glucose,Maltose, Dextrin, maltose

and Maltotriose.
(Smaller molecules)

Drawbacks of this
method
Shorter duration of food in
mouth.
Thus it is incomplete digestion of
starch or glycogen in the mouth

Digestion in the
Stomach
Stomach receives partially digested &
Partially indigested food from mouth
mixed with salivary enzyme
No CHO digesting enzymes, no digestion
However, HCl present in the stomach
causes hydrolysis of sucrose to fructose
and glucose.
Sucrose
Glucose

HCl

Fructose +

 Complete digestion, SI, longer time -stay

Food bolus reaches the duodenum from
the stomach where it meets the pancreatic
juice.
Enzymes: pancreatic amylase & intestinal
amylase
Includes: maltase
Isomaltose
Limit dextrinase
Sucrase
lactase

 Pancreatic juice contains a

carbohydrate splitting enzyme,
pancreatic amylase
(amylopsin) similar to salivary
amylase.

Action of pancreatic
amylase
It is an - Amylase
Optimum pH=7.1
Like ptylin, it requires Cl ion for its
activity.
It hydrolyses -1 4 glycosidic
linkages situated well inside
polysaccharide molecules.
Note: Pancreatic amylase, an isoenzyme of
salivary amylase, differs only in the optimum
pH of action. Both the enzymes require Chloride
ions for their actions (Ion activated enzymes).

Reaction catalyzed by pancreatic

amylase
Starch/Glyco
gen
Pancreatic
Amylase
Maltose/ Isomaltose
+
Dextrins and
oligosaccharides

Starch/glycoge
n
Isomaltose

Maltose
Limit dextrin

Pancreatic/intes
tinal amylase

Dextrin + limit + dextrin +

maltose +
Isomaltose

Isomaltase

2 glucose units

Maltase

2 glucose units

Limit dextrinase

2 glucose units

Sucrose

Sucrase

Glucose + fructose

Lactose

Lactase

Glucose + galactose

MOUTH
COMPLEX
CARBOHYDRATES
SMALL % OF
DIGESTION
STOMACH
NO DIGESTION
INTESTINE
DEXTRIN + LIMIT DEXTRIN + MALTOSE +
ISOMALTOSE
2 GLUCOSE UNITS

ABSORPTION
Occurs in small intestine
In blood stream, occurs in form of
simple
sugar-monosaccharideglucose, galactose, fructose
Simple sugar enter the portal
circulation via capillaries of villi & are
transported to liver

 In the liver fructose and galactose

are converted to glycogen for
storage
The
glycogen
stored
gets
reconverted to glucose during fasting

3 mechanisms

Passive
diffusion

Facilitated
diffusion/Carrier
mediated

Active
transport

Glucose absorption

GluT4- Glucose transport in cells

Features

Passive
diffusion

Facilitated
diffusion

Active transport

Concentration
gradient

Down the
concentration
gradient from
high to low.

Down the
concentration
gradient from
high to low.

Against a
concentration
gradient from low
to high

Energy
expenditure

none

none

Energy
expenditure is in
the form of ATP

Carrier protein/
transporter

Not required

required

required

Speed

Slowest mode

Fast

Fastest mode

Absorption of Glucose
from the small intestinal lumen
by carrier mediated
mechanism
involving transporter
proteins
1) Na+-dependent transporter
by secondary active
transport
and to a
less extent by
2) Na+-independent
transporter
by passive transport

Monosaccharides, the end

products of carbohydrate
digestion, enter the capillaries of
the intestinal villi

Small
intestine

Monosaccharides
travel to the
liver via the

In the
liver,
galactose
&
fructose
are
converte
d to
glucose.

Diagram showing absorption of

monosaccharides

Factors affecting rate of absorption of

Monosaccharides

The absorption is faster through intact

mucosa. The absorption is decreased if there
is some inflammation or injury to the mucosa.
Thyroid hormones the rate of absorption of
glucose.
Mineralocorticoid, i.e Aldosterone the rate of
absorption.
Vitamin B6,B12, pantothenic acid, folic acid
are required for absorption of glucose.
With advancing age, rate of absorption
declines.

Uptake of glucose in
peripheral cells
Mechanism: facilitated diffusion.
There are 7 important glucose
transporter for uptake of glucose into
special cells.
They have been numbered from 1 to
7 (GLUT 1 to GLUT 7).
They are biologically important.

METABOLISM
Simple carbohydrates which reach
the liver through portal circulation is
now used up by the body

Energy production
Glucose obtained directly utilized
by the body cells to obtain energy
Glucose broken down to release
energy
Glycolysis
Glucose
2 pyruvate

 Pyruvate enters TCA cycle

( tricarboxylic acid ) also known as kreb
cycle to produce energy in form of ATP
Pyruvate

2 acetyle CoA

Kreb cycle

Energy( 36 ATP Mol )

+Carbondioxide(6)+Water(6)

Storage products
Conversion into glycogen
Primarily glucose is used for energy
production
Extra glucose is converted into glycogen in
presence of insulin
And stored in liver & muscle
Glycogenesis
Insulin
Glucose glycogen

Conversion into fat

If glucose level exceeds beyond the
storage space available in liver &
mucle
Then rest of glucose is stored in form
of fat in adipose tissue
Lipogenesis

Maintenance of blood glucose

levels
After complete digestion glucose
enters blood stream helps normal
functioning all blood cells

FBS (Fasting Blood Glucose) : 80-110

mg/dl

HORMONES

EFFECT ON BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVEL

Insulin

Decreases

Glucogen

Increases

Epinephrine ( adrenaline)

Increases

Glucocorticoids

Increases

Thyroxine

Increases

Growth hormone

Increases