General Measurement

System
Mohd Zaki Nuawi

KMJ2314 Sem 1 Session 20132014

Introduction
We make measurements everyday.
Usually, we put little thought into the selection
of instruments for these routine
measurements.
When the stakes become greater, the
selection of measurement equipment and
techniques, and the interpretation of the
measured data can demand considerable
attention.
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Introduction
Why do we need to measure anything?
Because we seek confirmation of our experiences
and of our theories.
Measurement has become a basic tenet of our rational
approach to the expansion of human knowledge.
The scientific method has as its basis the measurement of
phenomena of interest to us in order to develop quantitative
descriptions of these.
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.Introduction
A measurement can be defined as number with
attached units.
The numerical value of a measurement should reflect
the sensitivity of the instrument used to make the
measurement.
Consider a bathroom scale, which measurement is
reasonable?
165.674 lbs or 166 lbs
An exact measurement does not really exist because
every instrument has some degree of uncertainty. An
instrument reads only a finite number of digits that
have meaning.
Every measurement has some degree of uncertainty in
the last decimal place. The last digit read with an
instrument, with analog readout, is estimated.
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..Introduction
So what is a measure?
An empirical objective assignment of a number or
symbol to an entity to characterize a specific
attribute. (Fenton, 1991)
Dimension or quantity reckoned by some standard.
(Websters Dictionary).

Introduction
This means that a measure is not just a number but
characterises a mapping between the manifestation of an
aspect of interest in an element or entity within our universe
of discourse and a mathematical or symbolic system of
ranking and comparison. In so doing, the aspect of interest is
called the attribute, and the mathematical system of ranking
and comparison into which these attributes are mapped is
called a scale. The action of producing the said mapping is
termed measurement.
So a direct or atomic measure is a quantification based on a
mapping into a numerical or symbolic value obtained from a
scale of a directly observed aspect of a phenomenon.

The Basics
Measurement is an act of assigning a specific value to
a physical variable detected by a sensor.
That physical variable is the measured variable.
A measurement system is a tool used for quantifying
the measured variable.
It is used to extend the abilities of the human senses
that, while they can detect and recognise different
degrees of roughness, length, sound, colour, and
smell, are limited and relative, they are not very adept
at assigning specific values
to sensed variables.
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...The Basics

Quantification is therefore the very basis of modern science.

Measurement has also had a correspondingly profound impact
on all fields of engineering. In fact it can be safely asserted
that modern engineering is defined in terms of its scientific
basis, its quantification of relationships and its measurement
based approaches.

The Basics

Basically, a general measurement system

consists of:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Sensor-transducer stage
Signal-conditioning stage
Output stage
Feedback-control stage

The Basics

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The Basics
The sensor is a physical element that
employs some natural phenomenon it
senses the variable being measured.
The transducer converts this sensed info into
a detectable signal (can be electrical,
mechanical, optical etc).
The goal is to convert the sensed info into a
form that can easily be quantified.

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The Basics

KJ2313 & KJ3313 Sem 1 Session 0607

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The Basics
Signal conditioning equipment modifies the
transducer signal.
Optional intermediate stage for eg., increasing
the magnitude of the signal through amplification,
removing portions of the signal through some
filtering technique

The output stage indicates or records the

value measured for eg., marked scale or a
recording device such a computer disk drive.
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The Basics
In measurement systems that are involved in
process control, there is a fourth stage
feedback-control stage.

For eg., a simple measurement system with

control stage is a household furnace
thermostat.
The operator fixes the set point for temperature
on thermostat display, and the furnace is
activated as the local temperature at the
thermostat, as determined by the sensor within
the device, rises or falls about the set point.
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Methods of Measurement
Two basic methods:
1. direct comparison with either a
primary or secondary standard
2. indirect comparison through the use
of a calibrated system.

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Direct Comparison
Tomeasure thelength ofa rod, for example,wecan
use aruler.We usea longrulerto compare
theabovewithastandardrod.In this way, we get
alongrodwithacomparison ofdirectmethods.
However,thismethodis not alwaysaccurateand
adequate.For example,in
securingtherodlengthabove,if theruleused is
therulerof steel(steelrule), the accuracyof
measurementisthe extentof
about1mmonly.Formost cases, we
needhigheraccuracy.For that,we needa more
complexmeasurement systemthat isnotaffordableby
theability ofthe humansensesalone.

Indirect Comparison
Indirectcomparisonrequires us
touseanintermediarydevicethatcalibratedformo
re accurate measurement.
For example,the human sensesare notcapable
ofdirectlymeasuringthestrainin the materialis
loaded
for example.To find thestrainbefore,we need
acalibratedsystemthat can detectthe strain,
thenchange theoutputvalue, and finallypresents
thestrainin the formwe
understand.Usually,theearlierstrainoutputcan be
readfroma shiftinscale,chartorin digital form.

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Calibration
A calibration applies a known input value to
a measurement system.
In this procedure, a known value is input to
the system under calibration and the
system output is recorded.
The known value used for the calibration is
called the standard.
The calibration procedure establishes the
correct output scale for the measuring
system.
Two types of calibration: static calibration &
dynamic calibration

Static Calibration
Most common type of calibration
Static implies that the values of the
variables involved remain constant; that is,
they do not vary with time or space.
By applying a range of known input values
and by observing the system output values,
a direct calibration curve can be developed
for the measurement system.
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Static Calibration
The static calibration curve describes the
static input-output relationship for a
measurement system and forms the logic by
which the indicated output can be
interpreted during an actual measurement.
For eg, the calibration curve is the basis for
fixing the output display scale on the
thermometer.
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KJ2313 & KJ3313 Sem 1 Session 0607

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Calibration Range
A calibration applies known inputs ranging
from the minimum to the maximum value for
which the measurement system is to be
used.
These limits define the operating range of
the system.
The input operating range is defined as
extending from xmin to xmax.
The input operating range may be expressed
in terms of the difference of the limits as

ri xmax xmin
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Calibration Range
Also, may specify the output operating range
from ymin to ymax.
The output scan or full-scale-operating (FSO)
range is expressed as

ro ymax ymin

Problem 1.33
KNOWN: Water at 20oC
Q =f(C,A,dp,)
C = 0.75; D = 1 m
2 < Q < 10 cmm

FIND: Expected calibration curve

SOLUTION
Part of a test matrix is to specify the range of the
independent variable and to anticipate the range
resulting in the dependent variable. In this case, the
pressure drop will be measured so that it is the
dependent variable during a static calibration. To
anticipate the output range of the calibration then:
Rearranging the known relation,
dp = (Q/CA)2/2
For = 998 kg/m3 (Appendix C), and A = D2/4, we find:
Q (cmm)
dp (N/m2

2
1.6
5 10
10
40
This is plotted below. It is clear that K will not be a
constant as K = f(Q).

Problem1.37

SOLUTION
Independent variables
micrometer setting (i.e. the applied displacement)
Controlled variable
power supply input
Dependent variable
output voltage measured
Extraneous variables
operator set-up, zeroing of system, and reading of micrometer
ability to set control variables

COMMENT
If you try this you will find that the power supply excitation voltage can have a
significant influence on the results. The ability to provide the exact voltage
on replication is important in obtaining consistent results in many
transducers. Even if you use a regulated laboratory variable power supply,
this effect can be seen in your data variation on replication as a random
variation. If you use an unregulated source, be prepared to trace these
effects as they change from hour to hour or from day to day.

Many LVDT units allow for use of dc power, which is then transformed to ac
form before being applied to the coil. It is easiest to see the effect of power
setting on the results when using this type of transducer.

Operating Range
It is important to choose the equipment that
measures a range that includes the value
that is being measured (eg when measuring
a force of up to 350N use a load cell that
that has a range of 0-450N NOT 0-350N).
As you approach an extreme the
measurements become unreliable.
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Resolution
The resolution represents the smallest increment in
the measured value that can be discerned.
In terms of a measurement system, it is quantified by
the smallest scale increment or least count (least
significant digit) of the output readout indicator.

Ruler A 4.2 +/- 0.1 cm

Ruler B4.25 +/- 0.05 cm

Accuracy and Error

The exact value of a variable is called the true
value.
The value of the variables as indicated by a
measurement system is called the measured
value.
Error may be defined as the difference between
the measured result and the true value of the
quantity being measured.
Accuracy refers to the closeness of agreement
between the measured value and the true value.
But the true value is never known! So, we are
also unsure of the error.
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Random & Systematic

Errors
Random error = measure of the random variation
found during repeated measurements of a variable.
The repeatability of a measurement system refers
to its ability to indicate the same value on
repeated measurements for a specific value of
input.
precision is used as a measure of the repeatability
of a measurement system; higher precision infers a
lower random error, better repeatability or less
variation between measurements.
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Random & Systematic

Errors
The portion of the absolute error that
remains constant on repeated
measurements is called the systematic error.
With systematic error, there is an offset or
bias from the true value that cannot be
discerned from repeated measurements.
Both random and systematic errors affect
the measure of the systems accuracy.
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Random & Systematic

Errors

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Random & Systematic

Errors
Suppose a measurement system were used to
measure a variable whose value was kept constant
and known exactly, as in a calibration.
For eg, 10 independent measurements were made.
The variations in the measurements, the observed
scatter in the data, would relate to the random error
associated with the measurement of the variable.
The offset between the apparent average of the
readings and the true value is the systematic error.

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Uncertainty
In a measurement, the error cannot be
known exactly since the true value is not
known.
But based on the results of a calibration,
the operator might feel confident that the
error is within certain bounds.
Uncertainty refers to the estimate of the
effects of the errors on the result of a
measurement.