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Epidemiology
By
Dr Abhinav Sinha MBBS, MD
Author
Currently doing MD in Community
Medicine at the Department of Community
Medicine,
NSCB
Medical College,
Jabalpur, India.
Passed MBBS from the same institute with
Gold Medals in Human Physiology and
Biochemistry in 2000.
Email- aspsm2000@yahoo.co.in
Learning Objectives
The main motives behind this lecture
are to develop the basic concept in
investigating an epidemic, the need to
recognize the urgency behind it and
to orient the students toward the art
and science of outbreak investigation
and epidemiology.
Performance Objectives
After going through this lecture, the
students should be able to perform the
initial investigation of many smaller
outbreaks that occur so much frequently
in their vicinity that may often pass
unrecognized. Also, they should be able
to differentiate the epidemic and the
endemic fluctuations in the frequencies
of a disease.
Definitions
1. Outbreak: Sudden occurrence of an
epidemic
in relatively limited
geographic area. While an outbreak is
usually limited to a small focal area,
an
epidemic
covers
larger
geographical areas & has more than
one focal point.
2. Outbreak Epidemiology: Study of a
disease cluster or epidemic in order to
control or prevent further spread of
the disease in the population.
Field Epidemiology
A definition has been proposed by
Goodman. The essential elements are:
1. The problem is unexpected
2. An immediate response may be
necessary
3. Epidemiologists must travel to &
work on location in the field
4. The extent of investigation is likely to
be limited because of imperative for
timely intervention
Objectives of OI
1. Primary- to control the spread of
disease
2. To determine the causes of disease,
its source & mode of transmission
3. To determine who is at risk
4. To determine what exposures
predispose to disease
5. To know magnitude of the problem
Objectives continued.
To identify new agent
7. To determine the effectiveness of
control measures
8. To identify methods for present &
future prevention & control
9. Research & training opportunities
10. Public, Political and legal concerns
6.
Unique aspects of OI
1. There is a pressure & urgency to
conclude the investigations quickly
which may lead to hasty decisions.
2. Data sources are often incomplete &
less accurate.
3. Decreased statistical power due to
analysis of small numbers.
4. Publicity surrounding the
investigation community members
may have preconceived ideas.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Preparedness
1. Identify a nodal officer at state/district
level
2. Strengthen routine surveillance system
3. Constitute rapid response teams
4. Train medical & other health personnel
5. Prepare a list of laboratories
6. List the high risk pockets
7. Establish rapid communication network
8. Undertake IEC activities
9. Ensure availability of essential supplies
10.Setup inter-departmental committees
Investigations
1. Recognition & response to a request for
assistance
2. Check initial information
3. Formulate a plan of action
4. Prepare for field work
5. Confirm the existence of epidemic
6. Verify the diagnosis
7. Identify & count cases/exposed persons
8. Orient data in terms of person, place &
time
Investigations continued..
9. Choose a study design
10.Collect specimens for lab analysis
11.Conduct environmental investigations
12.Formulate & test hypotheses
13.Implement control measures
14.Conduct additional studies
15.Prepare a written report
16.Communicate the findings
Auxillaries
1. Nurses
2. Specialist assistants
3. Secretary/Interpreter
4. Driver
Important points
1. Rare disease assumption: The OR &
RR approximate each other if the attack
rates is less than 5% but the attack rates
are much higher in outbreaks.
2. To correct for multiple comparisons, the
most effective approach is to lower the
p-value according to the number of
comparisons made.
Bibliography