Vertical Alignment

CE 453 Lecture 20
Sources: A Policy on Geometric
Design of Highways and Streets
(The Green Book). Washington, DC.
American Association of State
Highway and Transportation
Officials, 2001 4th Edition, and
FHWAs Flexibility in Highway
Design

Coordination of Vertical and

Horizontal Alignment

Curvature and grade should be in

proper balance

Avoid
Excessive curvature to achieve flat grades
Excessive grades to achieve flat curvature

Vertical curvature should be

coordinated with horizontal
Sharp horizontal curvature should not
be introduced at or near the top of a
pronounced crest vertical curve
Drivers may not perceive change in

Image source:
http://www.webs1.uidaho.edu/niatt_labman
ual/Chapters/geometricdesign/theoryandco
ncepts/DescendingGrades.htm

horizontal alignment esp. at night

Coordination of Vertical and

Horizontal Alignment
Sharp

horizontal curvature should not

be introduced near bottom of steep
grade near the low point of a
pronounced sag vertical curve
Horizontal curves appear distorted
Vehicle speeds (esp. trucks) are highest

at the bottom of a sag vertical curve

Can result in erratic motion

Coordination of Vertical and

Horizontal Alignment
On

two-lane roads when passing is

allowed, need to consider provision of
passing lanes
Difficult to accommodate with certain

arrangements of horizontal and vertical

curvature
need long tangent sections to assure
sufficient passing sight distance
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Coordination of Vertical and

Horizontal Alignment
At

intersections where sight distance needs

to be accommodated, both horizontal and
vertical curves should be as flat as practical
In residential areas, alignment should
minimize nuisance to neighborhood
Depressed highways are less visible
Depressed highways produce less noise
Horizontal alignments can increase the buffer

zone between roadway and cluster of homes

Coordination of Vertical and

Horizontal Alignment
When

possible alignment should

enhance scenic views of the natural
and manmade environment

Highway should lead into not away from

outstanding views
Fall towards features of interest at low
elevation
Rise towards features best seen from
below or in silhouette against the sky
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Coordination of Horizontal and

Vertical Alignment
Coordination

of horizontal and vertical

alignment should begin with preliminary
design
Easier to make adjustments at this stage
Designer should study long, continuous
stretches of highway in both plan and
profile and visualize the whole in three
dimensions
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Coordination of Horizontal and

Vertical Alignment

Coordination of Horizontal and

Vertical Alignment
Should

be consistent with the

topography
Preserve developed properties along
the road
Incorporate community values
Follow natural contours of the land
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Good Coordination of Horizontal

and Vertical Alignment
Does

not affect
aesthetic, scenic,
historic, and cultural
resources along the way
Enhances attractive
scenic views

Rivers
Rock formations
Parks
Historic sites
Outstanding buildings

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Vertical Curves
Connect

roadway grades (tangents)

Grade (rise over run)
10% grade increases 10 vertically for

every 100 horizontal

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Vertical Curves
Ascending

grade:

Frequency of

collisions increases
significantly when
vehicles traveling
more than 10 mph
below the average
traffic speed are
present in the
traffic stream

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Example
If

a highway with
traffic normally
running at 65 mph has
an inclined section
with a 3% grade, what
is the maximum
length of grade that
can be used before
the speed of the
larger vehicles is
reduced to 55 mph?
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Example
a

3% grade
causes a
reduction in
speed of 10
mph after
1400 feet

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Climbing lanes
When

flatter grades cannot be accommodated,

consider climbing lane when all 3 of the
following criteria are met (AASHTO):
Upgrade traffic flow rate in excess of 200 vehicles

per hour.
Upgrade truck flow rate in excess of 20 vehicles per
hour.
One of the following conditions exists:

A 15 km/h or greater speed reduction is expected for a

typical heavy truck.
Level-of-service E or F exists on the grade.
A reduction of two or more levels of service is experienced
when moving from the approach segment to the grade.

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Descending Grades

Problem is increased speeds and loss of control

for heavy trucks
Runaway vehicle ramps are often designed and
included at critical locations along the grade
Ramps placed before each turn that cannot be
negotiated at runaway speeds
Ramps should also be placed along straight
stretches of roadway, wherever unreasonable
speeds might be obtained
Ramps located on the right side of the road when
possible
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Maximum Grades
Passenger

vehicles can easily

negotiate 4 to 5% grade without
appreciable loss in speed
Upgrades: trucks average 7%
decrease in speed
Downgrades: trucks average speed
increase 5%
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Vertical Curves

Parabolic shape
VPI, VPC, VPT, +/- grade, L
Types of crest and sag curves

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Vertical Curves

Crest stopping, or passing sight distance

controls
Sag headlight/SSD distance, comfort,
drainage and appearance control
Green Book vertical curves defined by K =
L/A = length of vertical curve/difference
in grades (in percent) = length to change
one percent in grade

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Vertical Curve Equations

Parabola
y = ax2 + bx + c
Where:
y = roadway elevation at distance x
x = distance from beginning of vertical
curve
a = G2 G1
L
b = G1
c = elevation of PVC

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Vertical Curve AASHTO Controls

(Crest)

Minimum length must provide stopping

sight distance S
Two situations (both assume h1=3.5 and
h2=2.0)

Source: Transportation Engineering On-line Lab

Manual, http://www.its.uidaho.edu/niatt_labmanual/

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Assistant with Target Rod (2ft object height)

Observer with
Sighting Rod (3.5
ft)

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Vertical Curve AASHTO Controls

(Crest)

Note: for passing sight distance, use 2800

instead of 2158

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Example: Try SSD > L,

Design speed is 60 mph
G1 = 3% and G2 = -1%,
what is L?
(Assume grade = 0% for SSD)
SSD = 570feet ( see: Table 3.4 of text)
Lmin = 2 (570) 2158 = 600.5
|(-1-3)|
S < L, so it doesnt match condition

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Example: Assume SSD < L,

Design speed is 60 mph
G1 = 3% and G2 = -1%,
what is L?
Assuming average grade = 0%
SSD = 570 feet - ( Table 3.4 of text)
Lmin = |(-3 - 1)| (570 ft)2 = 602 ft
2158
SSD < L, equation matches condition

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Evaluation of example:
The

AASHTO SSD distance equations

provided the same design length from either
equation in this special case. (600 compared
to 602 - this is not typical)
Garber and Hoel recommend using the most
critical grade of - 1% for SSD computation.
Resulting SSD would be: d = 573 ft
Resulting minimum curve: L = 608 ft

Difference

between 602 and 608 is too small

to worry about
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Text example : g1 = + 3% g2 = -3%

Design speed of 60 mph
If SSD = 570 (AASHTO no grade
consideration)
Resulting minimum curve: L = 903 ft (S < L)
Consider grade per Garber and Hoel (p 693-694)
SSD, using - 3% grade,

598

Resulting minimum curve L = 994 ft

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Assessment of grade adjustment

If sight distance is less than curve length, the driver

will be on an upgrade a greater portion of the distance
than on a down grade
(for eye ht = 3.5 and object ht = 2.0 ft, 68% of the
distance between eye and object will be on + grade.)
For crest vertical curve, selecting a curve length based
on down grade SSD may produce an overly conservative
design length.
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AASHTO design tables

Vertical

curve length can also be found in

design tables

L = K *A
Where
K = length of curve per percent
algebraic difference in intersecting grade
Charts from Green Book
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From Green book

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From Green book

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Vertical Curve AASHTO Controls

(Crest)
Since you do not at first know L, try
one of these equations and compare
to requirement, or use L = KA (see
tables and graphs in Green Book for a
given A and design speed)

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Chart vs computed
From chart
V = 60 mph
For g1 = 3

K = 151 ft / % change

g2 = - 1

A = |g2 g1| = |-1 3| = 4

L = ( K * A) = 151 * 4 =

604
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Sag Vertical Curves

Sight

distance is governed by nighttime conditions

Distance on curve illuminated by

headlights need to be considered

Driver

comfort
Drainage
General appearance
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Vertical Curve AASHTO Controls (Sag)

Headlight Illumination sight distance
S < L:

L=

AS2
400 + (3.5 * S)

S > L:

L = 2S (400 + 3.5S)
A

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Vertical Curve AASHTO Controls (Sag)

For driver comfort use:

L > AV2
46.5
(limits g force to 1 fps/s)

To consider general appearance use:

L > 100 A
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Sag Vertical Curve: Example

A sag vertical curve is to be designed to join a 3% to a
+3% grade. Design speed is 40 mph. What is L?
Skipping steps: SSD = 313.67 feet

S>L

Determine whether S<L or S>L

L = 2(313.67 ft) (400 + 2.5 x 313.67) = 377.70 ft
[3 (-3)]
313.67 < 377.70, so condition does not apply

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Sag Vertical Curve: Example

A sag vertical curve is to be designed to join a 3%
to a +3% grade. Design speed is 40 mph. What is
L?
Skipping steps: SSD = 313.67 feet
L=

6 x (313.67)2

= 394.12 ft

400 + 3.5 x 313.67

313.67 < 394.12, so condition applies

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Sag Vertical Curve: Example

A sag vertical curve is to be designed to join a 3%
to a +3% grade. Design speed is 40 mph. What is L?
Skipping steps: SSD = 313.67 feet
Testing for comfort:
L = AV2 = (6 x [40 mph]2) = 206.5 feet

46.5

46.5

Testing for appearance:

L = 100A = (100 x 6) = 600 feet
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Vertical Curve AASHTO Controls (Sag)

For curb drainage, want min. of 0.3

percent grade within 50 of low point
= need Kmax = 167 (US units)

For appearance on high-type roads,

use min design speed of 50 mph (K =
100)
As in crest, use min L = 3V

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Other important issues:

Use

lighting if need to use shorter L

than headlight requirements
Sight distance at under crossings

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Example: A crest vertical curve joins a +3% and 4% grade.

Design speed is 75 mph. Length = 2184.0 ft. Station at VPI is
345+ 60.00, elevation at VPI = 250 feet. Find elevations and
station for VPC (BVC) and VPT (EVC).
L/2 = 1092.0 ft
Station at VPC = [345 + 60.00] - [10 + 92.00] = 334 + 68.00
Vertical Diff VPI to VPC: -0.03 x (2184/2) = - 32.76 feet
ElevationVPC = 250 32.76 = 217.24 feet
Station at VPT = [345 + 60.00] + [10 + 92.00] = 357 + 52.00
Vertical Diff VPI to VPT = -0.04 x (2184/2) = - 43.68 feet
Elevation VPT = 250 43.68 = 206.32 feet
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Example: A crest vertical curve joins a +3% and 4%

grade. Design speed is 75 mph. Length = 2184.0 ft.
Station at VPI is 345+ 60.00, elevation at VPI = 250
feet. Station at VPC (BVC) is 334 + 60.00, Elevation
at VPC: 217.24 feet.
Calculate points along the vertical curve.
X = distance from VPC
Y=

Ax2
200 L

Elevationtangent = elevation at VPC + distance x grade

Elevationcurve = Elevationtangent - Y
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Example: A crest vertical curve joins a +3% and

4% grade. Design speed is 75 mph. Length =
2184.0 ft. Station at VPI is 345+ 60.00,
elevation at VPI = 250 feet. Find elevation on
the curve at a point 400 feet from VPC.
Y=Ax

200L

= - 7 x (400 ft)2 = - 2.56 feet

200 (2814)

Elevation at tangent = 206.32 + (400 x 0.03) =

218.32
Elevation on curve = 218.32 2.56 feet = 226.68
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Calculating x from VPC, calculating tangent

elevation along +3% tangent

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Calculating x from VPT, calculating tangent

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elevation along +4% tangent

Source: Iowa DOT

Design Manual

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Source: Iowa DOT Design Manual

Note: L is measured from here to here

Source: Iowa
DOT Design
Manual

Not here

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