TheCardiovascularSystem:

BloodVessels
Chapter19

Introduction

Thebloodvesselsofthebodyforma
closeddeliverysystemthatbeginsand
endsattheheart
Oftencomparedtoaplumbingsystem,it
isafarmoredynamicsystemof
structuresthatpulse,constrictandrelax
andevenproliferatetomeetchanging
bodyneeds

BloodVesselStructure&Function

Themajortypesofbloodvesselsare
Arteries
Thelargedistributingvesselsthatbringbloodto
thebody

Capillaries
Thetinyvesselsthatdistributebloodtothecells

Veins
Thelargecollectingvesselsthatbringbloodback
totheheart

Intermediatevesselsconnect
Arteriolesbringbloodtothecapillaries
Venulesdrainbloodfromthecapillaries

BloodVesselStructure&Function

Thepatternofdistributionstartswith
arteriestoarteriolestocapillariesto
venulestoveins
Thebloodvesselsintheadulthuman
bodycarrybloodinadistribution
networkthatisapproximately60,000
milesinlength
Onlycapillariescomeintointimate
contactwithtissuecellsandservecellular
needs

StructureofBloodVesselWalls

BloodVesselWalls

Thewallsofbloodvesselsarecomposedofthree
distinctlayersortunics
Thetunicssurroundacentralopeningcalledalumen

BloodVesselWalls

Theinnermosttunic
isthetunicaintima
Thistuniccontains
theendothelium,the
simplesquamous
endotheliumthat
linesallvessels
Itsflatcellsfitclosely
together,forminga
slicksurfacethat
minimizesfrictionas
bloodmovesthrough

thevessellumen

Tunica
adventitia

BloodVesselWalls

Inbloodvessels
largerthan1mmin
diameter,asub
endotheliallayerof
looseconnective
tissue,subendothelial
layer,(basement
membrane)supports
theendothelium

BloodVesselWalls

Themiddletunic,the
tunicamedia,ismostly
circularlyarranged
smoothmusclecells
andsheetsofelastin
Theactivityofthe
smoothmuscleis
regulatedby
vasomotornervefibers
ofthesympathetic
divisionofthe
autonomicnervous

system

Tunicamedia

BloodVesselWalls

Dependingontheneedsofthebody,the
vasomotorfiberscancausevaso
constrictionorvasodilation
Theactivitiesofthetunicamediaare
criticalinregulatingcirculatorydynamics
Generally,thetunicamediaisthebulkiest
layerinarteries,whichbearthechief
responsibilityformaintainingblood
pressureandcontinuousbloodcirculation

BloodVesselWalls

Theoutermostlayer
ofabloodvesselis
thetunicaexterna
Thistunicis
composedlargelyof
looselywoven
collagenfibersthat
protectbloodvessels
andanchoritto
surrounding
structures

Tunica
externa

BloodVesselWalls

Thetunicaexternais
infiltratedwithnerve
fibersandlymphatic
vesselsand,inlarger
vessels,asystemof
tinybloodvessels
Thesevessels,the
vasavasorum
nourishtheexternal
tissuesoftheblood
vesselwall

Tunica
externa

Arteries

Arteriesarevesselsthatcarryblood
awayfromtheheart
Allarteriescarryoxygenrichbloodwith
theexceptionofthoseinthepulmonary
circuit
Bloodproceedstothetissuesthrough
Elasticarteries
Musculararteries
Arterioles

Elastic(Conducting)Arteries

Elasticarteriesarethickwalledarteries
nearthehearttheaortaanditsmajor
branches
Thesearteriesarethelargestindiameter
andthemostelastic
Alargelumenallowsthemtoserveaslow
resistancepathwaysthatconductblood
fromthehearttomediumsizedarteries
andthusarecalledconductingarteries

Elastic(Conducting)Arteries

Theelasticarteriescontainmoreelastin
thananyothertypeofvessel
Whilepresentinallthreelayers,the
tunicamediacontainsthemost
Theabundantelastinenablesthese
arteriestowithstandandsmoothoutlarge
pressurefluctuationsbyexpandingwhen
theheartforcesbloodintothemandthen
recoilingtopropelbloodonwardintothe
circulationwhentheheartrelaxes

Elastic(Conducting)Arteries

Elasticarteriesalsocontainsubstantial
amountsofsmoothmuscle,buttheyare
relativelyinactiveinvasoconstriction
Becauseelasticarteriesexpandandrecoil
passivelytoaccommodatechangesinblood
volume,thebloodiskeptunderpressure
Thus,bloodflowscontinuouslyratherthan
startingandstoppingwitheachheartbeat

Muscular(Distributing)Arteries

Themusculardistributingarteries
deliverbloodtospecificbodyorgansand
accountformostofthenamedarteries
Proportionately,theyhavethethickest
mediaofallvessels
Theirtunicamediacontainsrelatively
moresmoothmuscleandlesselastic
tissuethanthatofelasticarteries
Theyaremoreactiveinvasoconstriction
andarelessdistensible

Muscular(Distributing)Arteries

Asinallvessels,concentricsheetsof
elastinoccurwithinthetunicamediaof
musculararteriesalthoughthesesheets
arenotasthickorabundantasthoseof
elasticarteries

Muscular(Distributing)Arteries

Afeatureunique
tomuscular
arteries,
especiallythick
sheetsofelastin
lieoneachsideof
thetunicamedia
Anexternal
elasticlaminalies
betweenthe
tunicamediaand
tunicaexterna

Muscular(Distributing)Arteries

Theelastininmusculararteries,likethat
inelasticarteries,helpsdampenthe
pulsatilepressureproducedbythe
heartbeat

Arterioles

Arterioleshavealumendiameterfrom0.3
mmto10m,andarethesmallestofthe
arteries
Largerarteriolesexhibitallthreetunics,
buttheirtunicamediaischieflysmooth
musclewithafewscatteredmusclefibers
Thesmallerarteriolesthatleadinto
capillarybeds,arelittlemorethanasingle
layerofsmoothmusclecellsspiraling
aroundtheendotheliallining

Arterioles

Thediameterofeacharterioleisregulated
intwoways:
Localfactorsinthetissuessignalthesmooth
musculaturetocontractorrelax,thus
regulatingtheamountofbloodsent
downstreamtoeachcapillarybed
Sympatheticnervoussystemadjuststhe
diameterofarteriolesthroughoutthebodyto
regulatesystemicbloodpressure

Capillaries

Themicroscopic
capillariesarethe
smallestbloodvessels
Insomecases,one
endothelialcellforms
theentirecircum
ferenceofthe
capillarywall
Theaveragelengthof
acapillaryis1mm
andtheaverage
diameteris810m

Capillaries

Capillarieshavea
lumenjustlarge
enoughforblood
cellstoslipthrough
insinglefile

Capillaries

Capillariesarethebodysmostimportant
bloodvesselsbecausetheyrenewand
refreshthesurroundingtissuefluid
(interstitialfluid)withwhichallcellsinthe
bodyareincontract
Capillariesdelivertointerstitialfluidthe
oxygenandnutrientsthatcellsneedwhile
removingcarbondioxideandnitrogenous
wastesthatcellsdepositinthefluid

Capillaries

Giventheirlocationandthethinnessof
theirwallscapillariesareideallysuited
fortheirroleofprovidingaccessto
nearlyeverycell
Alongwiththeuniversalfunctionsjust
describedsomecapillariesalsoperform
sitespecificfunctions

Lungs:gasexchanges
Endocrineglands:pickuphormones
Smallintestine:nutrients
Kidneys:removalofnitrogenouswastes

CapillaryBeds

Acapillarybedisanetworkofthebodys
smallestvesselsthatrunthroughout
almostalltissues,especiallytheloose
connectivetissue
Thisflowisalsocalledamicrocirculation

CapillaryBeds

Inmostbodyregions,acapillarybedconsists
oftwotypesofvesselavascularshunt(meta
arteriole)andtruecapillaries

CapillaryBeds

Theterminalarterioleleadsintoametarteriole
whichisdirectlycontinuouswiththethorough
farechannel

CapillaryBeds

Thethoroughfarechanneljoinsthepost
capillaryvenulethatdrainsthecapillarybed

CapillaryBeds

Thetruecapillariesnumber10to100percapillary
bed,dependingontheorganserved
Branchfrommetarterioletothoroughfarechannel

CapillaryBeds

Acuffofsmoothmusclefibers,calledapre
capillarysphinctersurroundstherootofeach
capillaryatthemetarterioleandactsasavalveto
regulatetheflowofbloodintothecapillary

CapillaryBeds

Whentheprecapillarysphinctersarerelaxed,blood
flowsthroughthetruecapillariesandtakespartin
exchangeswithtissuecells

CapillaryBeds

Whentheprecapillarysphinctersarecontracted,
bloodflowsthroughtheshuntsandbypassesthe
tissuecells

CapillaryBeds

Mosttissueshavearichsupply,butthere
areafewexceptions

Tendonsandligaments/poorlyvascularized
Cartilage/fromadjacentconnectivetissue
Epithelia/fromadjacentconnectivetissue
Cornea/nourishedbyaqueoushumor

CapillaryBeds

Therelativeamountofbloodenteringa
capillarybedisregulatedbyvasomotor
nervefibersandlocalchemicalconditions
Acapillarybedmaybefloodedwithblood
oralmostcompletelybypassed,depending
onconditionsinthebodyorinthatspecific
organ
Exampleofshuntingbloodfromdigestive
organstoskeletalmuscles

CapillaryPermeability

Thestructureofcapillariesiswellsuited
fortheirfunctionintheexchangeof
nutrientsandwastesbetweenthebloodand
thetissuesthroughthetissuefluid
Acapillaryisatubeconsistingofthin
endothelialcellssurroundedbyabasal
lamina
Theendothelialcellsareheldtogetherby
tightjunctionsandoccasionaldesmosomes

CapillaryPermeability

Tightjunctionsblockthepassageof
smallmolecules,butsuchjunctionsdo
notsurroundthewholeperimeterofthe
endothelialcells
Instead,gapsofunjoinedmembrane
calledintercellularcleftsoccurthrough
whichsmallmoleculesexitandenterthe
capillary

CapillaryPermeability

Externaltothe
endothelialcells,
thedelicate
capillaryis
strengthenedand
stabilizedby
scatteredpericytes

CapillaryPermeability

Thepericytesare
spidershapedcells
whosethin
processesforma
networkthatis
widelyspacedsoas
tonottointerfere
withcapillary
permeability

CapillaryPermeability

Structurallytherearethreetypesof
capillaries
Continuous
Fenestrated
Sinusoidal

ContinuousCapillaries

Continuous
capillariesare
abundantinthe
CNS,skinand
musclesandare
themostcommon
Theyare
continuousinthe
sensethattheir
endothelialcells
providean
uninterrupted
lining

ContinuousCapillaries

Adjacentcellsarejoinedlaterallybytight
junctions
However,theseareusuallyincompleteand
leavegapsofunjoinedmembranecalled
intracellularcleftsthatarejustlarge
enoughtoallowlimitedpassageoffluids

FenestratedCapillaries

Fenestrated
capillarieshave
fenestrations
(pores)spanning
theendothelialcells
Fenestrated
capillariesoccur
onlywherethere
areexceptionally
highratesof
exchangeofsmall
moleculesbetween
bloodandthe
surroundingtissue

FenestratedCapillaries

Thefenestrationsareusuallycoveredbya
thindiaphragmbutthisvarietyhasmuch
greaterpermeabilitytofluidsandsmall
solutes
Fenestratedcapillariesarefoundwhere
activecapillaryabsorptionorfiltrate
formationoccurs

FenestratedCapillaries

Fenestrated
capillariesarefound
inthesmallintestine
toreceivedigested
nutrients
Thesecapillariesare
alsofoundinthe
synovialmembranes
ofjointstoallow
watermoleculesto
exitthebloodto
formsynovialfluid

Intercellular
clefts

RoutesofCapillaryPermeability

Moleculespassintoandoutofcapillaries
viafourroutes
Directdiffusionthroughendothelialcell
membranes
Throughtheintercellularclefts
Throughcytoplasmicvesiclesorcaveolae
Throughfenestrationsinfenestrated
capillaries

RoutesofCapillaryPermeability

Mostexchangeofsmallmoleculesisthought
tooccurthroughintercellularclefts
Caveolaeapparentlytransportafewlarger
molecules,suchassmallproteins
Carbondioxideandoxygenseemtobethe
onlyimportantmoleculesthatdiffuse
directlythroughendothelialcellsbecause
theseunchargedmoleculeseasilydiffuse
throughlipidcontainingmembranesofcells

LowPermeabilityCapillaries

Thebloodbrainbarrierpreventsallbut
themostvitalmolecules(evenleukocytes)
fromleavingthebloodandentering
braintissue
Thebloodbrainbarrierderivesits
structurefromthecapillariesofthebrain
Braincapillarieshavecompletetight
junctions,sointercellularcleftsare
absent

LowPermeabilityCapillaries

Braincapillariesarecontinuous,not
fenestratedandtheyalsolackcaveolae
Vitalcapillariesthatmustcrossbrain
capillariesareusheredthroughby
highlyselectivetransportmechanismsin
theplasmamembranesoftheendothelial
cells

SinusoidalCapillaries

Someorgans
containwide,
leakycapillaries
calledsinusoids
Eachsinusoid
followsatwisted
pathandhasboth
expandedand
narrowedregions

SinusoidalCapillaries

Sinusoidsare
usuallyfenestrated
andtheir
endothelialcells
havefewercell
junctionsthando
ordinary
capillaries

SinusoidalCapillaries

Insomesinusoids
theintercellular
cleftiswideopen
Sinusoidsoccur
whereverthereis
anextensive
exchangeoflarge
materials,suchas
proteinsorcells,
betweentheblood
andsurrounding
tissue

SinusoidalCapillaries

Sinusoidsarefoundinonlyinbone
marrowandspleen,wheremanyblood
cellsmovethroughtheirwalls
Thelargediameterandtwistedcourseof
sinusoidsensurethatbloodslowswhen
flowingthroughthesevessels,allowing
timeforthemanyexchangesthatoccur
acrosstheirwalls

Veins

Veinsarethebloodvesselsthatconduct
bloodfromthecapillariesbacktotheheart
Becausebloodpressuredeclines
substantiallywhilepassingthroughthe
highresistancearteriolesandcapillary
beds,bloodpressureinthevenouspartof
thecirculationismuchlowerthaninthe
arterialpart

Veins

Becausetheyneednotwithstandasmuch
pressure,thewallsofveinsarethinner
thanthoseofcomparablearteries
Thevenousvesselsincreaseindiameter,
andtheirwallsgraduallythickenasthey
progressfromvenulestothelargerand
largerveinsleadingtotheheart

Venules

Venules,rangingfrom8to100 mindiameterare
formedwhencapillariesunite
Thesmallestvenules,thepostcapillaryvenules,
consistofendotheliumonwhichliepericytes

Venules

Venulesjointoformveins
Withtheirlargelumensandthinwalls,
veinscanaccommodateafairlylarge
bloodvolume
Upto65%ofthebodystotalblood
supplyisfoundintheveinsatanyone
timealthoughtheveinsarenormallyonly
partiallyfilledwithblood

Veins

externa

Veinshavethreedistincttunics,buttheirwallsare
alwaysthinnerandtheirlumenslargerthanthoseof
correspondingarteries
Thereislittlesmoothmuscleeveninthelargestveins

Veins

Thetunicaexternais
theheaviestwall
layerandisoften
severaltimesthicker
thanthetunicamedia
Inthevenaecavae,
thelargestveins,
whichreturnblood
directlytotheheart
thetunicaexternais
furtherthickenedby
longitudinalbandsof
smoothmuscle

Tunicaexterna

Veins

Veinshavelesselastinintheirwallsthan
doarteries,becauseveinsdonotdampen
anypulsations(thesehavebeensmoothed
outbythearteries)
Becausebloodpressurewithinveinsis
low,theycanbemuchthinnerwalledthan
arterioleswithoutdangerofbursting

Veins

Lowpressureconditionsdemandsome
specialadaptationstohelpreturnblood
totheheartatthesamerateasitwas
pumpedintocirculation
Onestructuralfeaturethatpreventsthe
backflowofbloodawayfromtheheartis
thepresenceofvalveswithinveins

Veins

Venousvalvesare
formedfromfoldsof
thetunicaintimaand
theyresemblethe
semilunarvalvesof
theheartinstructure
andfunction
Venousvalvesare
mostabundantinthe
veinsofthelimbs,
wheretheupward
flowofbloodis
opposedbygravity

Veins

Afewvalvesoccurintheveinsofthe
headandneck,butnonearelocatedin
veinsofthethoracicandabdominal
cavities
Afunctionalmechanismthataidsthe
returnofvenousbloodtotheheartisthe
normalmovementofourbodyandlimbs

Veins

Anothermechanismof
venousreturniscalled
theskeletalmuscular
pump
Herecontracting
musclespressagainst
thethinwalledveins
forcingvalvesproximal
tothecontractionto
openandpropellingthe
bloodtowardtheheart

VascularAnastomoses

Wherevesselsuniteorinterconnect,they
formvascularanastomoses
Mostorganreceivebloodfrommore
thanonearterialbranchandarteries
supplyingthesameareaoftenmerge,
formingarterialanastomoses
Arterialanastomosesprovidealternative
pathwayscalledcollateralchannelsfor
bloodtoreachagivenbodyregion

VascularAnastomoses

Ifonearterialbranchisblockedarterial
anastomosesprovidetheregionwithan
adequatebloodsupply
Arterialanastomosesareabundantin
abdominalorgansandaroundjoints,
whereactivemovementmayhinder
bloodflowthroughonechannel

VascularAnastomoses

Anastomosesarealsoprevalentinthe
abdominalorgans,brain,andheart
Becauseofthemanyanastomosesamong
thesmallerbranchesofthecoronary
arteryintheheartwall,acoronary
arterycanbe90%occludedby
atherosclerosis(plaque)beforea
myocardialinfarction(heartattack)
occurs

VascularAnastomoses

Arteriesthatdonotanastomose,or
whichhaveapoorlydevelopedcollateral
circulation(retina,kidneys,spleen)may
bevulnerableiftheirbloodflowis
interrupted
Veinsanastomosesmuchmorefreely
thanarteriesandbecauseofabundant
collateralcirculationocclusionofavein
rarelyblocksbloodflowleadingtotissue
death

VasaVasorum

Thewallofthebloodvesselscontain
livingcellsandthereforerequireablood
supplyoftheirown
Forthisreasonthelargerarteriesand
veinshavetinyarteries,capillariesand
veinsintheirtunicaexterna
Thesetinyvesselsthevasavasorum
nourishtheouterhalfofthewallofa
largevesselwiththeinnerhalfbeing
nourishedbythebloodinthelumen

EndofMaterial
Chapter19