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PRESURE

MEASUREMENT

Group members
KALAICHELVI M/SUPPAYA
INTRODUCTION
LIQUID MANOMETER

DEFINITION

Pressure is the action of one force


against another over a surface.

The pressure P of a force F


distributed over an area A.

Pabs=Pgage +Patm

Units of Pressure

depending on their
suitability for the
application.

atmosphere (atm)
bar (b)
hectopascal (hPa)
kilogram per sq. cm (kgf/cm)
kilogram per sq. meter (kgf/m)
kilopascal (kPa)
millibar
millimeter of mercury (mmHg)
pascal (Pa)
pounds per square foot (psf
pounds per square inch (psi)
torr (Torr)

How pressure is generated???


Collision of molecule with wall
Momentum is mass x velocity
Change of momentum is double
Collision is isothermal = perfectly elastic
Sum collisions over area to get force

Pressure Measurement
methods::

ABSOLUTE
METHOD
S

DIFFERENTIAL

GAUGE

ZERO REFERENCE

Absolute pressureis zero-referenced against a perfect


vacuum,

Pabs=Pgage + Patm
Gauge pressureis zero-referenced against ambient air pressure,
so
Pgage=Pabs-Patm

Negative signs are usually omitted. To distinguish a negative


pressure, the value may be appended with the word "vacuum"
or the gauge may be labeled a "vacuum gauge.

Differential pressureis the difference in pressure between


two points

Absolute
pressure
is zero referenced
against a perfect
vacuum (it-the
value-is equal to
gauge pressure plus
atmospheric
pressure).

Gauge
pressure
is zero referenced
against ambient air
pressure; it-the
value-is equal to
absolute pressure
minus atmospheric
pressure. Negative
signs are usually
omitted; often
expressed as
inches of vacuum
or some such

Differential
pressure
is the difference in
pressure between two
points.

Gauge,Absolute & Atmospheric Pressure

1.

Pressure above atmosphere is called( positive) gauge pressure (psig)

2.

Pressure below atmosphere is called vacuum (negative gauge


pressure
1.

Absolute pressure (psia)is measured from perfect vacuum

PRESSURE SENSORS
Pressure sensors can be classified in terms of::
pressure ranges they measure,
temperature ranges of operation,
the type of pressure they measure.
Pressure sensors are variously named
according to their purpose,
but the same technology may be used under
different names.

Absolute pressure sensor


measures the pressure relative toperfect vacuum.

Gauge pressure sensor


measures the pressure relative to atmospheric
pressure.

EXAMPLE:
A tire pressure gauge is an example of gauge
pressure measurement; when it indicates zero,
then the pressure it is measuring is the same as
the ambient pressure

Vacuum pressure sensor (confusing)

measures pressures below atmospheric


pressure,

showing the difference between that low pressure and


atmospheric pressure (i.e. negative gauge pressure)

As well as::

measures low pressure relative to perfect


vacuum (i.e. absolute pressure).

Indicative Range of Instruments

Below 1 mm of Hg
Manometers & low pressure gauges

Between 1 mm of Hg to 1000 atm


Bourden tube
Diaphragm gages
Bellows

High vacuum (up to 10^-9 torr)


McLeod gage
Thermal conductivity gage
Ionization gage

High pressure (1000 atm & above)


Electrical resistance type

Type of pressure to be
measured

Pressure Measuring
instrument to be used

Low pressure

Manometer

High and medium pressure

Bourdon tube pressure


gauge.
Diaphragm gauge.
Bellows Gauges.

Low vacuum and ultra high Mcleod vacuum gauge


vacuum
thermal conductivity
gauges.
Ionisation gauges,pirani
vacuum gauge
Very high presures

Bourdon tube pressure


gauge.
Diphragm gauge.
Bulk modulus pressure
gauge.

Manometers basics
Characterized

by its
inherent accuracy and
simplicity of operation.

The mercury
manometer,
another
calibration
option for
pressure
sensors,

can be used on
gauge,
differential, and
absolute
sensors with a
suitable
reference.

Manometer.

The difference
between column
heights gives the
pressure reading.

Manometers are
used mainly to
calibrate sensors
designed to
measure in the
lower pressure
ranges.

LIQUID COLUMN
MANOMETERS

The device used to know about the pressure difference in


the pipeline,
Manometeric fluids as mercury or carbon tetrachloride etc.
, where the density should be higher than the fluid which
flow through the pipe,
manometeric fluid will be filled in the tube for the value,
the two legs are connected to the points on which we
areinterestedto calculate thedifferential pressure,
when this done the fluid which flow in the pipe or tube will
enter into both the legs,
the pressure on the leg will differ showing
thedeflectionof height in the manomertic fluid.

Principle:

all manometers work on the effect of


hydrostatic pressure exerted by a liquid
column.

In manometer unknown pressure is


determined by balancing it against some
known pressure or vacuum.

Construction and working:

The U-tube manometer consists of glass U-tube


partially filled with a suitable liquid like water, mercury
etc.

one of the arms or legs of the manometer, is


connected to unknown pressure tap to be measured

while other is connected to other pressure tap

or it is left open to atmosphere.

level difference in the two arms of the manometer


represents differential pressure (P1-P2

1) The static balance equation is:

P2-P1=h g

h=height difference
=mass density of manometer liquid

2)If the fluid over manometer liquid has appreciable density, then
static balance equation can be written as:
P2-P1= h (m - l) g

h= height difference
m = mass density of manometric liquid
l = mass density of fluid over manometric liquid

Inclined Tube Manometer

The construction is very similar to enlarged leg manometer


except that small diameter tube is inclined to the vertical
axis.

INCLINED LEG MANOMETER:

The inclined leg


expands the scale
so that lower
pressure
differentials may
be read easily

Sensitivity of
the manometer
increases

For static balance:


P2 P1=(1+A1/A2)R sin
If (A1/A2)<<1, then R,sin

The scale of the


manometer can be
extended greatly by
decreasing the angle of
the inclined leg to a
small value

Inclined Tube Manometer


Advantages:
Due to inclined leg, the manometer
reading gets amplified.
Hence it can be used for measurement of
low pressures of which cannot be
measured by other manometers.
By reducing angle , the scale length and
hence the sensitivity can be increased.

Typical pressure sensor


functional blocks.

Pressure Sensing

Pressure is sensed by mechanical elements such as plates, shells,


and tubes

that are designed and constructed to deflect when pressure is


applied.

This is the basic mechanism converting pressure to physical


movement.

Next,this movement must be transduced to obtain an electrical or


other output.

Finally, signal conditioning may be needed, depending on the type


of sensor
and the application.

ELASTIC PRESSURE
SENSORS
Elastic pressure sensors are so called:
because something
flexes,
stretches,
or temporarily deforms
when a pressure is applied.

Elastic
pressure
sensors
. initially
convert
pressure into a
displacement

Elastic pressure
sensors measure
pressure
differentially.

This allows
displacement
sensors to be
used to
condition the
output signal
from the
pressure sensor.

ELASTIC
PRESSURE
SENSORS

the method of detecting


pressure change is usually
by means of a diaphragm.

Some pressure
sensors are
referred to by
the method they
use to measure
this
displacement,
such as
piezoelectri
c and
capacitive
pressure
sensors.
Where
electronic
displacemen
t sensors are
used,

Sensing Elements
The main types of sensing elements are
Bourdon tubes,
diaphragms,
capsules, and
bellows .

bellows

diaphragms

Bourdon
tubes

Mechanical Pressure
Gauges.

In mechanical gauges, the motion created by the


sensing element is read directly by a dial or pointer.
These devices are typically seen in lowperformance applications, including blood pressure
measurement and automotive pressure gauges.
The mechanical approach used to couple the
sensing element to the readout can introduce
repeatability.
The mechanical mass of the gauges also limits the
frequency response and makes these sensors
suitable only for slowly changing measurements

Key concept: pressure


difference across different
areas of inner and outer
surfaces causes crescent
to flex

When a closed-end, curved,


oval cross-section, copper
alloy tube is
connected to the vacuum,
atmospheric pressure bends
it to a greater or
lesser degree, depending
on the internal pressure.

The mechanical force moves an


indicator needle through a
geared linkage.

commonly
attached to regulators on
gas cylinders),

The Bourdon tube is a


common transducer for
converting pressure to
displacement.

Advantages :

Bourdon tube
gauges with
stainless steel
bayonet ring cases
are well sealed
and show a high
chemical resistance

which is required for


corrosive
atmosphere,
or where dirty damp
occurs.

These gauges are


small , simple , cheap
and relatively rugged .

Disadvantages :

The
fundamental
problem is
that the actual
atmospheric
(barometric)
pressure
directly affects
the reading.

Since weather
conditions can
change the local
barometric
pressure by
several percent
(1 percent = 7.6
Torr)

Small measuring range , sensitivity


to vibrations being recalibrated
before every use are other
disadvantages of this gauge

BELLOWS

Function : deliver
pressurized air in a
controlled quantity to a
controlled location.

range is from 0-5 mmHg to 02000 psi

A bellows gauge contains an elastic element that


is a convoluted unit that expands and contracts
axially with changes in pressure.

pressure to be measured can be applied to the


outside or inside of the bellows.

in practice, most bellowsmeasuringdevice


have the pressure applied to the outside of the
bellows.

Elastic elements in bellows


gauges are made of : phosphor
bronze, brass , stainless steel ,
beryllium copper and other
metals thats suitable for the
intended
purpose of the gauge

spring-loaded

- preventing full expansion of the bellows


- protects the bellows and prolongs its life.
- the deflection is the result of the force acting
on
thebellows and the opposing force of the spring.

The movement is proportional to number of


convolutions
Sensitivity is proportional to size
In general a bellows can detect a slightly lower
pressure than a diaphragm
Accuracy in the range of 1% span

Principle

: Bellows pressure element is


works on the principle of Elasticity.

mechanism

the applied displacement is converted into


proportionate mechanical displacement.
Whenever the pressure to be measured is applied
the sealed end of bellow suffers displacement.
Generated displacement can be known by
attaching a pointer scale arrangement to the
sealed end or by transmitting the displacement
tothesecondary transducer.

Application

used to provide more air to fire to keep it


burning; for instances such as cooking.
iron smelting and welding.
provide the fuel with additional air,
through the compressing and decompressing of
the handles on the bag
which causes air to get blown out from the
nozzle
thus raising the rate of combustion and which
causes the heat output to be increased.

It is used to measure
absolute & differential
pressure.
It is used to measure
low or medium
pressure range.

ADVANTAGES

It is not useful to
measure high value
pressure.

DISADVANTAGES

Ionization gauge
Electronic pressure sensors
most sensitive gauges for very low
pressures.
sense pressure indirectly by measuring the
electrical ions produced when the gas is
bombarded with electrons.
device that is used tomeasure vacuum.
come in two types: hotcathodeand cold
cathode.

Principle of Ionization Gauge

A filament is heated to emit electrons.


These
electrons
ionized
gaseous
molecules.
Ions (gaseous molecule ions) are
attracted to the cathode of a electrical
circuit and an electrical current is resulted.

Range: 103 1010 mmHg

HOT IONIZATION GAUGE VS


COLD IONIZATION GAUGE

HIG

ionizing electrons from a thermionic


cathode are
accelerated by suitable electrodes
into an ionizing space.

CIG
caused by a circulating electron
plasma trapped in crossed
electric and magnetic fields.

HOT CATHODE IONIZATION


GAUGE

hot filament boils out an


emission current of
electrons which are
accelerated to a positively
charged grid, usually in the
form of a wire spiral
Some of the electrons
pass through the spaces
between the spiral.
And find themselves in a
retarding field which
reverses their direction
before they strike the
collector electrode.

however, while in the space

between the grid and the


collector, a few of the
electrons strike gas molecules,
ionizing them by knocking off
one or more of the molecules'
peripheral electrons.

positive ions thus created are


attracted to the collector; they
form a current (ion current)
which is proportional to the
pressure of gas molecules and
the emission current of
electrons

COLD CATHODE IOINZATION


GAUGE

device consists of two


cathodes and a hollow
anode in between.
input voltage greater than
2 Kilovolt is applied
between them.
A strong magnetic field is
produced due to the
applied voltage and thus
the electrons are ejected.
This causes the gauge to
operate.

At pressures below10-2Torr,
the mean free path of the gas
is so large that a collision may
not occur at all so that
discharge is not sustained or
ionization may not be initiated.
This problem can be
eliminated by a collimating
magnetic field.
The collimating magnetic field
increases the path length for
the electrons, enabling
discharges possible at
pressures down to about10 5Torr.

PIRANI VACUUM GAUGE

is a robustthermal conductivitygauge used for the


measurement of thepressuresin vacuum systems.
consists of a metal filament (usuallyplatinum) suspended
in a tube which is connected to the system whose vacuum
is to be measured.
Connection is usually made either by a ground glass joint or
aflangedmetal connector, sealed with ano-ring.
The filament is connected to an electrical circuit from
which, after calibration, a pressure reading may be taken.

Basic Principle
A conducting wire gets heated when electric current
flows through it.
The rate at which heat is dissipated from this wire
depends on the conductivity of the surrounding media.
The conductivity of the surrounding media inturn
depends on the densisty of the surrounding media
(that is, lower pressure of the surrounding media,
lower will be its density).
If the density of the surrounding media is low, its
conductivity also will be low causing the wire to
become hotter for a given current flow, and vice versa.

A constant current is passed through the filament in the pirani


gauge chamber. Due to this current, the filament gets heated
and assumes a resistance which is measured using the bridge.

WORKING
OPERATION

Now the pressure to be measured (applied pressure) is


connected to the pirani gauge chamber.
Due to the applied pressure the density of the surrounding of
the pirani gauge filament changes. Due to this change in
density of the surrounding of the filament its conductivity
changes causing the temperature of the filament to change.
When the temperature of the filament
changes, the resistance of the filament
also changes.

Now the change in


resistance of the filament
is determined using the
bridge.

This change in resistance of the pirani gauge filament


becomes a measure of the applied pressure when
calibrated.

They are rugged and


inexpensive
Give accurate results
Good response to
pressure changes.
Relation between
pressure and resistance
is linear for the range of
use.
Readings can be taken
from a distance.

ADVANTAGE

Pirani gauge must be


checked frequently.
Pirani gauge must be
calibrated from
different gases.
Electric power is a
must for its operation.

DISADVANTAGE

Application
Pressure measurement in roughing pumping
system
Pressure monitoring in various vacuum
pumping system
Interlocks, sequencing, and other control
system related functions for practical
vacuum equipment.

THERMOCOUPLE VACUUM
GAUGE

consist of two basic


components, a resistive
filament and a thermocouple
junction used to measure its
temperature.

What is thermocouple

thermocouple is a device used extensively


for measuring temperature.

Principle of operation
The working of a thermocouple type
vacuum gauge is very similar to that of a
pirani gauge.
The only difference is that the hot wire
temperature is measured directly with a
thermocouple which is attached to a wire.
For different pressures, the temperature is
measured by the fine-wire thermocouple.
The sensitivity of this instrument depends
on the pressure and the wire current.

Working operation
Employs a heater and dissimilar metal
elements in a bonded junction to detect a
temperature change.
As the pressure in the sensor tube decreases,
a rise in temperature occurs since less gas is
present to dissipate the heater's energy.
The thermocouple senses the temperature
change and a temperature dependent output is
produced.
This output is used to drive a micrometer
scaled in pressure units.

APPLICATION
Refrigerator
Cryogenics / Vacuum Insulator
Air Conditioning
Freeze Drying
Transformer Oil Refill
Pharmaceutical

ADVANTAGES

Reliable

Stable Calibration

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