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Mechanics of Rigid Bodies

Rigid body
Rigid body: a system of mass points subject to the
holonomic constraints that the distances between all
pairs of points remain constant throughout the
motion
If there are N free particles, there are 3N degrees of
freedom
For a rigid body, the number of degrees of freedom
is reduced by the constraints expressed in the form:

rij cij
How many independent coordinates does a rigid
body have?

4.1

The independent coordinates of a rigid


body
Rigid body has to be described by its orientation
and location
Position of the rigid body is determined by the
position of any one point of the body, and the
orientation is determined by the relative position of
all other points of the body relative to that point

4.1

The independent coordinates of a rigid


body
Position of one point of the body requires the
specification of 3 independent coordinates
The position of a second point lies at a fixed
distance from the first point, so it can be specified by
2 independent angular coordinates

4.1

The independent coordinates of a rigid


body
The position of any other third point is determined
by only 1 coordinate, since its distance from the first
and second points is fixed
Thus, the total number of independent coordinates
necessary do completely describe the position and
orientation of a rigid body is 6

4.1

Orientation of a rigid body


The position of a rigid body can be described by
three independent coordinates,
Therefore, the orientation of a rigid body can be
described by the remaining three independent
coordinates
There are many ways to define the three orientation
coordinates
One common ways is via the definition of direction
cosines

4.1

Direction cosines
Direction cosines specify the orientation of one
Cartesian set of axes relative to another set with
common origin

i' i cos 11 j cos 12 k cos 13


j ' i cos j cos k cos
21

22

23

k' i cos 31 j cos 32 k cos 33


Orthogonality conditions:

i j j k k i i' j ' j 'k' k'i' 0


i i j j k k i'i' j ' j ' k'k' 1

4.1

Orthogonality conditions

4.1

i'i'
(i cos 11 j cos 12 k cos 13 ) (i cos 11 j cos 12 k cos 13 )
cos 11 cos 12 cos 13 1
2

i' j '
(i cos 11 j cos 12 k cos 13 ) (i cos 21 j cos 22 k cos 23 )
cos 11 cos 21 cos 12 cos 22 cos 13 cos 23 0
Performing similar operations for the remaining 4
pairs we obtain orthogonality conditions in a
compact form:
3

cos
l 1

li

cos lk ik

4.1

Orthogonal transformations

For an arbitrary vector G iG1 jG2 kG3


We can find components in the primed set of axes

as follows:
G ' i'G i'iG i' jG i'kG
1

(i cos 11 j cos 12 k cos 13 ) iG1


(i cos j cos k cos ) jG
11

12

13

(i cos 11 j cos 12 k cos 13 ) kG3


cos 11G1 cos 12G2 cos 13G3
Similarly

G2 ' cos 21G1 cos 22G2 cos 23G3


G3 ' cos 31G1 cos 32G2 cos 33G3

Orthogonal transformations
Therefore, orthogonal transformations are defined
as:
3

Gi ' aij G j ;

aij cos ij

j 1

Orthogonal transformations can be expressed as a


matrix relationship with a transformation matrix A

G ' AG
With orthogonality conditions imposed on the
transformation matrix A
3

a a
l 1

li lk

ik

4.2

Properties of the transformation matrix


Introducing a matrix inverse to the transformation
matrix
3

AA 1

l 1

a ki

kl li

Let us consider a matrix element aij


3

akj
k 1

a
k 1

akl ali akj akl ali ali

l 1
k 1 l 1

l 1

3
ali jl a ji aij
l 1
~
1
A A

Orthogonality conditions

a
k 1

kj

akl jl

kj

ki

a
k 1

kj

akl

4.3

Properties of the transformation matrix


~
A A 1

~
AA AA 1

~
AA 1

Calculating the determinants


2
~
~
AA A A A A A 1 1

A 1
The case of a negative determinant
corresponds to a complete inversion
of coordinate axes and is not
physical (a.k.a. improper)

4.3

Properties of the transformation matrix


In a general case, there are 9 non-vanishing
elements in the transformation matrix

a11
A a21
a31

a12
a22
a32

a13
a23
a33

In a general case, there are 6 independent equations


in the orthogonality conditions

3

cos
l 1

li

cos lk ik

i' j ' j 'k ' k 'i' 0


i'i' j ' j ' k'k' 1

Therefore, there are 3 independent coordinates that


describe the orientation of the rigid body

4.1
4.2

Example: rotation in a plane


Lets consider a 2D rotation of a position vector r
The z component of the vector is not affected,
therefore the transformation matrix should look like

a11

A a21
0
2

a22

With the orthogonality conditions

a
k 1

a12

kj

akl jl

j , l 1,2

The total number of independent


coordinates is
43=1

4.2

Example: rotation in a plane


The most natural choice for the independent
coordinate would be the angle of rotation, so that

x1 ' x1 cos x2 sin


x2 ' x1 sin x2 cos
x3 ' x3
The transformation matrix

cos
A sin
0

sin
cos
0

0
0

4.2

Example: rotation in a plane


The three orthogonality conditions

a11a11 a21a21 1
a12 a12 a22 a22 1
a11a12 a21a22 0
They are rewritten as

cos 2 sin 2 1
sin 2 cos 2 1
cos sin sin cos 0

4.2

4.2

Example: rotation in a plane


cos
The 2D transformation matrix

A sin
It describes a CCW rotation of
0
the coordinate axes

Alternatively, it can describe


a CW rotation of the same
vector in the unchanged
coordinate system

sin
cos
0

4.4

The Euler angles


In order to describe the motion of rigid bodies in the
canonical formulation of mechanics, it is necessary
to seek three independent parameters that specify
the orientation of a rigid body
The most common and useful set of such
parameters are the Euler angles
The Euler angles correspond to an orthogonal
transformation via three successive rotations
performed in a specific sequence
The Euler transformation matrix is proper

A 1

Leonhard Euler
(1707 1783)

The Euler angles


First, we rotate the system around the z axis

cos

x' ' Dx' sin


0

sin
cos
0

0 x '
0 y '
1 z '

Then we rotate the system around the x axis

0
1
X Cx' ' 0 cos

0 sin

sin

x' '
y ' '

cos z ' '

4.4

The Euler angles


Finally, we rotate the system around the Z axis

cos

x BX sin

sin
cos
0

0 X

0 Y
1 Z

The complete transformation can be expressed as a


product of the successive matrices

x BX BCx' ' BCDx' Ax'

x Ax'

4.4

4.4

The Euler angles


The explicit form of the resultant transformation
matrix A is

A BCD

cos cos cos sin sin


sin cos cos sin cos

sin sin

cos sin cos cos sin


sin sin cos cos cos
sin cos

sin sin
cos sin
cos

The described sequence is known as the xconvention


Overall, there are 12 different possible conventions
in defining the Euler angles

Euler theorem
Euler theorem: the general displacement of a rigid
body with one point fixed is a rotation about some
axis
If the fixed point is taken as the origin, then the
displacement of the rigid body involves no
translation; only the change in orientation
If such a rotation could be found, then the axis of
rotation would be unaffected by this transformation
Thus, any vector lying along the axis of rotation
must have the same components before and after the
orthogonal transformation:

R ' AR R

4.6

4.6

Euler theorem
AR R

AR 1R

( A 1)R 0

This formulation of the Euler theorem is equivalent


to an eigenvalue problem
( A 1)R 0
With one of the eigenvalues 1
So we have to show that the orthogonal
transformation matrix has at least one eignevalue
The secular equation of an eigenvalue problem is

A 1 0
It can be rewritten for the case of

A 1 0

4.6

Euler theorem

~
Recall the orthogonality condition: A 1 AA 1
~
~
~ ~
~
~
~
( A 1) A 1 A
AA A 1 A
( A 1) A 1 A
~
~
~
~
A 1 A 1 A
A 1 A 1 A
A 1 1 A

A 1 1 A

A 1 1 A

A 1 ( A 1)

A 1 (1) A 1
n

n is the dimension of the square matrix


For 3D case:

A 1 (1)3 A 1

It can be true only if

A 1 0

A 1 A 1
Q.E.D.

4.6

Euler theorem
For 2D case (rotation in a plane) n = 2:

A 1 (1) A 1
n

A 1 A 1

Michel Chasles
(17931880)

Euler theorem does not hold for all orthogonal


transformation matrices in 2D: there is no vector in
the plane of rotation that is left unaltered only a
point

To find the direction of the rotation axis one has to


solve the system of equations for three components
of vector R:

( A 1)R 0

Removing the constraint, we obtain Chasles


theorem: the most general displacement of a rigid
body is a translation plus a rotation

Infinitesimal rotations
Let us consider orthogonal transformation matrices
of the following form

A 1

Here is a square matrix with infinitesimal elements


Such matrices A are called matrices of infinitesimal
rotations
Generally, two rotations do not commute

A1 A 2 R A 2 A1R
Infinitesimal rotations do commute

(1 1 )(1 2 ) 1 11 1 2 1 2 1 1 2
(1 2 )(1 1 ) 1 2 1 11 21 1 2 1

4.8

4.8

Infinitesimal rotations
The inverse of the infinitesimal rotation: A 1 1
Proof:(1 ) A (1 )(1 ) 1 1 1 1

On the other hand: A 1 A

~
~
1 1

Matrices are antisymmetric

In 3D we can write:

d 3
d 2

d 3
0
d1

d 2
d1
0

Infinitesimal change of a vector:

dr r 'r (1 )r r r

(dr )i ij rj
j 1

Infinitesimal rotations
3

(dr )i ij rj
j 1

(dr )1 r2 d 3 r3 d 2
(dr ) 2 r3 d1 r1d 3
(dr ) 3 r1d 2 r2 d1

d 3
d 2
j , k 1


dr r (d)

(d) is a differential vector, not a


differential of a vector

d 3

d 2

0
d1
d1
0
3

(dr )i ijk rj d k
( d ) n d

dr (r sin )d

4.8


dr ( r n ) d

(d) is normal to the rotation plane

4.8

Infinitesimal rotations

0
d 2
n

d1
3

n2
d1
0
0 0 0
3
d ni M i
M1 0 0 1
i 1
0 1 0

d 3
d 2

d 3
0

n3
0

n1

n2

n1 d
0

0 0 1
0 1 0
M 2 0 0 0 ; M 3 1 0 0
1 0 0
0 0 0

These matrices are called infinitesimal


3
rotation generators

M i M j M j M i ijk M k
i 1

( d ) n d

4.8

Example: infinitesimal Euler angles


A

cos cos cos sin sin


sin cos cos sin cos

sin sin

cos sin cos cos sin

sin sin

sin sin cos cos cos


sin cos

cos sin
cos

For infinitesimal Euler angles it can be rewritten as

A (d d )

( d d )

d d
1
d
d d
0
d

0
d 1
1
0

d
0

0
d 3
d 2

d 3
0
d1

d 2
d1
0

(d) id k(d d )

4.9

Rate of change of a vector


G ' AG

Gi ' aij G j
j 1

aij ij daij ij ij

dGi ' aij dG j G j daij ( ij daij )dG j G j daij


3

j 1

j 1

ij dG j G j ij dGi G j ijk d k dGi


j 1
k 1

j 1
3
ijk G j d k
3
j ,k 1
dGi ' dGi G d i
ij ijk d k
3

k 1

Dividing by dt

dG ' dG

G
dt
dt

dt d

' G
G
G

4.10

Example: the Coriolis effect


G
' G
G

const

Velocity vectors in the rotating and in the


stationary systems are related as


rs rr r


v s vr r

For the rate of change of velocity


d ( vr r )

( v s ) s (v s ) r v s
( vr r )
dt


(vr ) r 2 vr ( r )


ar as 2 vr ( r )
Rotating system: acceleration acquires
Coriolis and centrifugal components

Gaspard-Gustave
Coriolis
(1792 - 1843)

Example: the Coriolis effect


ac v r 2
On the other hand

qB
aL v
m

This is the Lorentz acceleration


aL v L

qB
L
m

What is the relationship between those two?

1.2

Kinetic energy of a system of particles

1
2

Kinetic energy of a system of particles T mi (ri )


2 i

mi ri
Introducing a center of mass: mi ri

R i
i

M
mi ri MR
mi
i

We can rewrite the coordinates in the center-ofmass coordinate system:


ri ri ' R


ri ri ' R

Kinetic energy can be rewritten:


1
2 1
T mi (ri ) mi (ri ' R ) (ri ' R )
2 i
2 i

1
1
2
mi (ri ' ) mi (ri 'R ) mi ( R ) 2
2 i
2 i
i

1.2

Kinetic energy of a system of particles



1
1
2
2

T mi (ri ' ) mi (ri 'R ) mi ( R )


2 i
2 i
i

1 2
1
2
mi (ri ' ) R mi ri ' ( R ) mi
2 i
2
i
i
d
1 2
1
2
mi (ri ' ) R mi ri ' ( R ) M
2 i
dt i
2
On the other hand

mi ri MR
i

mi ri ' MR'
i

In the center-of-mass coordinate


system, the center of mass is at the
origin, therefore

1
1 2
2
T mi (ri ' ) ( R ) M
2 i
2

Kinetic energy of a system of particles


Kinetic energy of the system of particles consists of
a kinetic energy about the center of mass plus a
kinetic energy obtained if all the mass were
concentrated at the center of mass
This statement can be applied to the case of a rigid
body: Kinetic energy of a rigid body consists of a
kinetic energy about the center of mass plus a kinetic
energy obtained if all the mass were concentrated at
the center of mass
Recall Chasles theorem!

1
1 2
2
T mi (ri ' ) ( R ) M
2 i
2

1.2
5.1

5.1

Kinetic energy of a system of particles


Chasles: we can represent motion of a rigid body as
a combination of a rotation and translation
If the potential and/or the generalized external
forces are known, the translational motion of center
of mass can be dealt with separately, as a motion of a
point object
Let us consider the rotational part or motion

1
TR mi (ri ' ) 2
2 i
1
1 2
2
T mi (ri ' ) ( R ) M
2 i
2

5.3

Rotational kinetic energy




1
1
1
2
TR mi (ri ' ) mi ri 'ri ' mi ( ri ' ) ( ri ' )
2 i
2 i
2 i


Rate of change of a vector ( r ' ) (r ' ) r '
i

For a rigid body, in the rotating frame of reference,


all the distances between the points of the rigid body


are fixed:

(ri ' ) r 0

(ri ' ) s ri '

Rotational kinetic energy:

3


1


1
TR mi ( ri ' ) ( ri ' ) mi ( ri ' ) j ( ri ' ) j
2 i
2 i
j 1
3
1
mi

2 i
j 1

k ,l 1

jkl

k ri 'l

m , n 1

jmn

m ri 'n

5.3

Rotational kinetic energy



jkl jmn
1

TR mi jkl k ri 'l jmn m ri 'n


j 1

2 i
j 1 k ,l 1
km l n lm kn
m ,n 1

3
1
mi jkl jmn k m ri 'l ri 'n
2 i j ,k ,l ,m ,n 1
3
1
mi ( km l n lm kn )k m ri 'l ri 'n
2 i k ,l ,m ,n 1
3
3

1
2
2
mi (k ) (ri 'l ) k ri 'k ri 'l l
2 i
k ,l 1
k ,l 1

3
~ I
1 3
1

2
k l mi [(ri ' ) kl ri 'k ri 'l ] k I kl l
2 k ,l 1
2 k ,l 1
2
i
3

I kl mi [(ri ' ) kl ri 'k ri 'l ]


2

5.3

Inertia tensor and moment of inertia

~ I

TR
2

I kl mi [(ri ' ) 2 kl ri 'k ri 'l ]


i

(3x3) matrix I is called the inertia tensor


Inertia tensor is a symmetric matrix (only 6
independent elements):

I kl I lk

For a rigid body with a continuous distribution of


density, the definition of the inertia tensor is as
follows:
I [(r ) 2 r r ]dV
kl

kl

k l

2
~
~
I
I nIn

TR

n
2
2
2
~In
I

n
Scalar I is called the moment of inertia

Introducing a notation

5.3

Inertia tensor and moment of inertia


I 2
TR
2
On the other hand:

2


1
TR mi ( ri ' ) ( ri ' )
2
2 i



mi (n ri ' ) (n ri ' )
i

Therefore



I mi (n ri ' ) (n ri ' )
i

The moment of inertia depends upon the position


and direction of the axis of rotation

5.3

Parallel axis theorem


For a constrained rigid body, the rotation may occur
not around the center of mass, but around some
other point 0, fixed at a given moment of time
Then, the moment of inertia about the axis of
rotation is:




I 0 mi (n ri ) (n ri ) mi (n (ri ' R )) (n (ri ' R ))
i

2


ri ri ' R
mi (n ri ' ) 2 mi (n ri ' ) (n R )
i

2
mi (n R )

I CM
i


2
2(n mi ri ') (n R ) (n R ) M
i

5.3

Parallel axis theorem


I 0 I CM

2
M (n R)

Parallel axis theorem: the moment of inertia about a


given axis is equal to the moment of inertia about a
parallel axis through the center of mass plus the
moment of inertia of the body, as if concentrated at
the center of mass, with respect to the original axis

5.1

Parallel axis theorem


Does the change of axes affect the vector?
Let us consider two systems of coordinates defined
with respect to two different

points
of the rigid body:
x1y1z1 and x2y2z2
R R R
2


Then ( R2 ) s ( R1 ) s ( R ) s ( R1 ) s ( R ) r 1 R

Similarly ( R1 ) s ( R2 ) s ( R ) s


( R2 ) s ( R ) r 2 R


( R2 ) s ( R1 ) s 1 R


(1 2 ) R 0


( R1 ) s ( R2 ) s 2 R

5.1

Parallel axis theorem


(1 2 ) R 0

Any difference in vectors at two arbitrary points


must be parallel to the line joining two points
It is not possible for all the points of the rigid body
Then, the only possible case:


1 2
The angular velocity vector
is the same for all coordinate
systems fixed in the body

5.3

Example: inertia tensor of a


homogeneous cube
Let us consider a homogeneous cube of mass M
and side a
Let us choose the origin at one of cubes corners
Then
a a a

I kl [(r ) 2 kl rk rl ]dV
V

a a a

I11 [(r ) 2 r1r1 ]dr1dr2 dr3 [(r2 ) 2 (r3 ) 2 ]dr1dr2 dr3


0 0 0

a a

0 0 0

5
2
2

a
2
Ma
I 22 I 33
a [(r2 ) 2 (r3 ) 2 ]dr2 dr3

3
3
0 0

5.3

Example: inertia tensor of a


homogeneous cube
I kl [(r ) 2 kl rk rl ]dV
V

a a a

a a

a5
Ma 2
I12 [r1r2 ]dr1dr2 dr3 a [r1r2 ]dr1dr2

4
4
0 0 0
0 0
I12 I 21 I13 I 31 I 23 I 32
2
3
1
I Ma 2
4
1
4

4
2
3
1

1

4
1

4
2
3

5.1

Angular momentum of a rigid body


Angular momentum of a system of particles is:


L mi (ri ri )
i


Rate of change of a vector ( ri ) s (ri ) r ri

For a rigid body, in the rotating frame of reference,


all the distances between the points of the rigid body

are fixed:
(r ) r

(ri ) r 0

i s


Angular momentum of rigid body: L mi (ri ( ri ))
i
3
3

L j mi jkl rik lmn m rin
k ,l 1

i
m
,
n

jkl lmn rik rin m mi


i

k ,l , m , n 1

5.1

Angular momentum of a rigid body


Lj

k , m , n 1

k ,l , m , n 1
jm

r r m mi

jkl lmn ik in

kn jn km )rik rin m mi
3

k mi [(ri ) jk rij rik ] I jk k


k 1

k 1

L I
Rotational kinetic energy:

~
~
~
L
I L

TR

2
2
2

5.5
5.6

Free rigid body


For a free rigid body, the Lagrangian is:

3
1
1
1
1
2
2
2

L T mi (ri ' ) ( R) M k I kl l ( R ) M
2 k ,l 1
2
2 i
2
Recall i dt d i

1 3
T
Then L k I kl
l
CM
2 k ,l 1
We separate the Lagrangian into two independent
parts and consider the rotational part separately
Then, the equations of motion for rotation

d LR
LR

dt
i
i

dt

I ik k 0

k 1

dt

I
k 1

ik

k 0

5.5
5.6

Free rigid body


d

dt

I
k 1

dLi
0
dt

ik

dL
0
dt

k 0

Angular momentum of a free rigid body is constant

dL

dt

In the system of coordinates fixed with the rotating


rigid body, the tensor of inertia is a constant it is
often convenient to rewrite the equations of motion in
the rotating frame of reference:


dL
L 0
dt r
3

I
k 1

ik

dt
3

k ,l , m 1

I
k 1

ik

k ikl k Ll 0
k ,l 1

I k l 0

ikl ml

5.4

Principal axes of inertia


Inertia tensor is a symmetric matrix
In a general case, such matrices can be
diagonalized we are looking for a system of
coordinates fixed to a rigid body, in which the inertia
tensor has a form: I1 0 0

I 0
0

I2

I 3

To diagonalize the inertia tensor, we have to find the


solutions of a secular equation

I11 I

I12

I13

I 21

I 22 I

I 23

I 31

I 32

I 33 I

5.4

Principal axes of inertia


Coordinate axes, in which the inertia tensor is
diagonal, are called the principal axes of a rigid body;
the eigenvalues of the secular equations are the
components of the principal moment of inertia
After diagonalization of the inertia tensor, the
equations of motion for rotation of a free rigid body
3
look like

I i i

j , k 1

ijk

j k I k 0

After diagonalization of the inertia tensor, the


rotational kinetic energy a rigid body looks like

1 3
2
TR I i i
2 i 1

5.4

Principal axes of inertia


To find the directions of the principal axes we have
to find the directions for the eigenvectors
When the rotation occurs around one of the
principal axes In, there is only one non-zero
component n
In this case, the angular momentum has only one
component

Lk I k k kn

In this case, the rotational kinetic energy has only


2
3
one term
I
1

TR

in I i i
2

i 1

5.6

Stability of a free rotational motion


Let us choose the body axes along the principal
axes of a free rotating rigid body
Let us assume that the rotation axis is slightly off
the direction of one of the principal axes ( - small
parameter):

1i1 2i2 3i3

i
Then, the equations of motion I i
I1 1 2 3 ( I 3 I 2 ) 0
I 2 2 13 ( I1 I 3 ) 0
I 3 3 12 ( I 2 I1 ) 0

j , k 1

ijk

j k I k 0

I1 1 2 3 ( I 3 I 2 ) 0
I 2 2 1 3 ( I1 I 3 ) 0
I 3 3 1 2 ( I 2 I1 ) 0

5.6

Stability of a free rotational motion


1 0

I1 1 2 3 ( I 3 I 2 ) 0
I 2 2 1 3 ( I1 I 3 ) 0

I1 I 3
2 1 3
0
I2

I 3 3 1 2 ( I 2 I1 ) 0

I 2 I1
3 1 2
0
I3

1 const

2( 3) 2( 3)

1
( I1 I 2 )( I1 I 3 ) 0
I 2 I3
2

2( 3) 2( 3) K 0

1
K
( I1 I 2 )( I1 I 3 )
I2 I3

5.6

Stability of a free rotational motion


2
1
K
( I1 I 2 )( I1 I 3 )
I 2 I3

2( 3) 2( 3) K 0

The behavior of solutions of this equation depends


on the relative values of the principal moments of
inertia
2
0

I1 I 2 ; I 1 I 3

I1 I 2 ; I1 I 3

2 ( 3)

K 0

2 ( 3)

K 2

2 ( 3) A2( 3) cos( t 2 (3) )

Always stable

I 3 I1 I 2
I 2 I1 I 3

2 (3) 2 2 ( 3) 0
K 0

Exponentially unstable

K 2

2( 3) A2 ( 3) e t

2( 3) A2( 3) et

Classification of tops
Depending on the relative values of the principle
values of inertia, rigid body can be classified as
follows:
Asymmetrical top: I1 I 2 I 3
Symmetrical top: I1 I 2 I 3
Spherical top: I1 I 2 I 3
Rotator: I1 I 2 0; I 3 0

Example: principal axes of a uniform


cube
Previously, we have found the inertia tensor for a
uniform cube with the origin at one of the corners,
and the coordinate axes along the edges:

2
3
1
I Ma 2
4
1
4

4
2
3
1

1

4
1

4
2
3

The secular equation:

2Ma 2
I
3
Ma 2

4
Ma 2

Ma 2

4
2
2 Ma
I
3
Ma 2

Ma 2

4
Ma 2

0
4
2
2 Ma
I
3

2
2

11Ma
2 Ma


M 2 a 4 Ma 2 2 Ma 2

I
I

I 0

3
8
4
3
12

Example: principal axes of a uniform


cube
2

11Ma 2
2 Ma 2


M 2 a 4 Ma 2 2 Ma 2

I
I

I 0

3
8
4
3
12


2
2
2
11
Ma
Ma
11Ma
I2
; I3
I1
12
6
12
To find the directions of the principal axes we have
to find the directions for the eigenvectors

Ma 2
Let us consider I 3
6
I 3 I 3 1 3

13

3 23
33

Example: principal axes of a uniform


cube
2 Ma 2
Ma 2
Ma 2
Ma 2
13
23
33
13
3
4
4
6

213 23

1
33 33

Ma 2
2Ma 2
Ma 2
Ma 2

13
23
33
23
4
3
4
6

13 223

1
33 33

Ma 2
Ma 2
2 Ma 2
Ma 2

13
23
33
33
4
4
3
6

13 23

2
33 33

13 23
13 33

13 23 33

5.6

Free symmetrical top


I i i

j , k 1

ijk

j k I k 0

I1 1 2 3 ( I 3 I 2 ) 0
I 2 2 13 ( I1 I 3 ) 0
I 3 3 12 ( I 2 I1 ) 0

For a free symmetrical top:

I1 I 2 I 3
3 ( I1 I 3 )
1 2
I1
3 ( I1 I 3 )
2 1
I1
3 const

I1 1 2 3 ( I 3 I1 ) 0
I1 2 13 ( I1 I 3 ) 0
I 3 3 0

3 ( I1 I 3 )
1 2
1 1

I1

1 A cos t
2 A sin t

5.5

Motion of non-free rigid bodies


How to tackle rigid bodies that move in the presence
of a potential or in an open system with generalized
forces (torques)?
Many Lagrangian problems of such types allow
separation of the Lagrangians into two independent
parts: the center-of-mass and the rotational
For the non-Lagrangian (open) systems, we modify
the equations of motion via introduction of
generalized forces (torques) N:

I i i

j , k 1

ijk

j k I k N i

Heavy symmetrical top with one point


fixed
For this problem, it is convenient to use the Euler
angles as a set of independent variables
Let us express the components of as functions of
the Euler angles
The general infinitesimal rotation associated with
can be considered as consisting of three successive
infinitesimal rotations with angular velocities



; ;

5.7
4.9

4.9

Heavy symmetrical top with one point


fixed

x BX BCx' ' BCDx' Ax'


x
0
0

0
y A 0




sin sin
x

y cos sin
cos
z

cos cos cos sin sin


A sin cos cos sin cos

sin sin

cos sin cos cos sin


sin sin cos cos cos
sin cos

sin sin

cos sin
cos

4.9

Heavy symmetrical top with one point


fixed

x BX BCx' ' BCDx' Ax'


x



0
y B 0
z
0
0


cos
x

cos
B sin

sin
cos
0

0
1

y sin
0
z

4.9

Heavy symmetrical top with one point


fixed
x BX BCx' ' BCDx' Ax'

0
0

x 0
y 0
z

x cos
y sin
0
z

x sin sin
y cos sin
cos
z

4.9

Heavy symmetrical top with one point


fixed


sin sin cos

cos sin sin


cos

x 0
y 0
z

x cos
y sin
0
z

x sin sin
y cos sin
cos
z

5.7

Heavy symmetrical top with one point

fixed

m r MR
i i

L T V
2
2
2
T TTranslatio n TRotation I1 (1 2 ) I 33
2
2



V r gdV g r dV g RM

The Lagrangian:

Using the Euler angles

V gRM cos
I1 I 2

5.7

Heavy symmetrical top with one point


sin sin cos

fixed

2
2
2
I 33
I1 (1 2 ) I 3 ( cos

2
2
2

cos sin sin

cos
2

( cos sin sin ) 2 ( sin sin cos ) 2


I1
2
( cos ) 2
2 sin 2 2
I3
I1
2
2
V gRM cos

5.7

Heavy symmetrical top with one point


fixed
( cos ) 2
2 sin 2 2
L I3
I1
gRM cos
2
2
The Lagrangian is cyclic in two coordinates

L
L
0;
0

Thus, we have two conserved generalized momenta

L
p I 3 ( cos 2 cos ) I1 ( sin 2 ) const I1b

L
p
I 3 ( cos ) const I1a

5.7

Heavy symmetrical top with one point


fixed
( cos ) 2
2 sin 2 2
L I3
I1
gRM cos
2
2

L
The Lagrangian does not contain time explicitly
0
t
Thus, the total energy of the system is conserved

( cos ) 2
2 sin 2 2
E I3
I1
gRM cos const
2
2
To solve the problem completely, we need three
additional quadratures
We will look for them, using the conserved
quantities

5.7

Heavy symmetrical top with one point


fixed
I 3 ( cos ) I1a

I 3 I1a I 3 cos

2
2

I 3 ( cos cos ) I1 ( sin ) I1b

I 3 ( cos 2 ) ( I1a cos I 3 cos 2 ) I1 ( sin 2 ) I1b


a cos sin 2 b
I1
a f1 ( ) cos f 2 ( )
I3

b a cos

sin 2

f1 ( )

( f1 ( ) cos f 2 ( )) 2
f1 ( ) 2 sin 2 2
E I3
I1
gRM cos
2
2
One variable only: we can find all the quadratures!

5.7

Heavy symmetrical top with one point


fixed

( f1 ( ) cos f 2 ( )) 2
f1 ( ) 2 sin 2 2
E I3
I1
gRM cos
2
2
I1 2 I 3 ( f1 ( ) cos f 2 ( )) 2 I1 f1 ( ) 2 sin 2
E

RMg cos
2
2
2
We have an equivalent 1D problem with an effective
potential!

I 3 ( f1 ( ) cos f 2 ( )) 2 I1 f1 ( ) 2 sin 2
Veff ( )

RMg cos
2
2
( I1a ) 2 I1 (b a cos ) 2

gRM cos
2
2I3
2 sin
I1 (b a cos ) 2
Veff ' ( )
gRM cos I ( cos ) I a
2
3
1
2 sin

5.7

Heavy symmetrical top with one point


fixed
I1 2
E'
Veff ' ( )
2
d
t ( )
2 / I1[ E 'Veff ' ( )]

dt

2[ E 'Veff ' ( )]
I1

In the most general case, the integration involves


elliptic functions
Effective potential is a function with
a minimum: motion in is bound by
two values

5.7

Heavy symmetrical top with one point


fixed
When is at its minimum, we have a precession
Otherwise, the top is bobbing: nutation
The shape of the nutation trajectory depends on the
behavior of the time derivative of

b a cos

sin 2

5.9

L
i

Charged rigid body in an


electromagnetic field
2
2
2
mi (ri , x ri , y ri , z )


qi (ri ) qi (ri A)

Let us consider the following vector potential (C


3
constant

vector)

A Cr

Ai (C r ) i

j , k 1

ijk

C j rk

How is magnetic field related to vector C?

B A

Bn ( A) n

rk
nmi ijk C j

rm
i , j , k , m 1
3

j , k , m 1

m ,i 1

nmi

( nj mk

Ai
rm

rk
nk mj )C j
rm

5.9

Charged rigid body in an


electromagnetic field
3
rk
Bn ( nj mk nk mj )C j
rm
j , k , m 1
3
rm 3
rn
Cn
Cm
3Cn Cm mn 2Cn Bn
rm m 1
rm
m 1
m 1


B
Br
C
A
2
2
3

Constant magnetic field

mi (ri , x ri , y ri , z )

qi (ri ) qi


B ri

ri
2

5.9

Charged rigid body in an


electromagnetic field

2
2
2
mi (ri , x ri , y ri , z )

q
B

r
i
L
qi (ri ) ri i

2
2
i

qi B ri
qi B
i ri 2 i 2m (ri ri mi )
i
Let us assume a uniform charge/mass ratio

~

qB ( q / m ) B
qB
L

(ri ri mi )
L
2m i
2m
2
Recall rotational kinetic energy

~L

TR
2


a (b c ) b (c a )

5.4

Radius of gyration
FYI: radius of gyration is

R0
I MR0

I
M
I 2 M ( R0 ) 2
TR

2
2

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