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Rigid body
Rigid body: a system of mass points subject to the
holonomic constraints that the distances between all
pairs of points remain constant throughout the
motion
If there are N free particles, there are 3N degrees of
freedom
For a rigid body, the number of degrees of freedom
is reduced by the constraints expressed in the form:
rij cij
How many independent coordinates does a rigid
body have?
4.1
4.1
4.1
4.1
4.1
Direction cosines
Direction cosines specify the orientation of one
Cartesian set of axes relative to another set with
common origin
22
23
4.1
Orthogonality conditions
4.1
i'i'
(i cos 11 j cos 12 k cos 13 ) (i cos 11 j cos 12 k cos 13 )
cos 11 cos 12 cos 13 1
2
i' j '
(i cos 11 j cos 12 k cos 13 ) (i cos 21 j cos 22 k cos 23 )
cos 11 cos 21 cos 12 cos 22 cos 13 cos 23 0
Performing similar operations for the remaining 4
pairs we obtain orthogonality conditions in a
compact form:
3
cos
l 1
li
cos lk ik
4.1
Orthogonal transformations
as follows:
G ' i'G i'iG i' jG i'kG
1
12
13
Orthogonal transformations
Therefore, orthogonal transformations are defined
as:
3
Gi ' aij G j ;
aij cos ij
j 1
G ' AG
With orthogonality conditions imposed on the
transformation matrix A
3
a a
l 1
li lk
ik
4.2
AA 1
l 1
a ki
kl li
akj
k 1
a
k 1
l 1
k 1 l 1
l 1
3
ali jl a ji aij
l 1
~
1
A A
Orthogonality conditions
a
k 1
kj
akl jl
kj
ki
a
k 1
kj
akl
4.3
~
AA AA 1
~
AA 1
A 1
The case of a negative determinant
corresponds to a complete inversion
of coordinate axes and is not
physical (a.k.a. improper)
4.3
a11
A a21
a31
a12
a22
a32
a13
a23
a33
cos
l 1
li
cos lk ik
4.1
4.2
a11
A a21
0
2
a22
a
k 1
a12
kj
akl jl
j , l 1,2
4.2
cos
A sin
0
sin
cos
0
0
0
4.2
a11a11 a21a21 1
a12 a12 a22 a22 1
a11a12 a21a22 0
They are rewritten as
cos 2 sin 2 1
sin 2 cos 2 1
cos sin sin cos 0
4.2
4.2
A sin
It describes a CCW rotation of
0
the coordinate axes
sin
cos
0
4.4
A 1
Leonhard Euler
(1707 1783)
cos
sin
cos
0
0 x '
0 y '
1 z '
0
1
X Cx' ' 0 cos
0 sin
sin
x' '
y ' '
cos z ' '
4.4
cos
x BX sin
sin
cos
0
0 X
0 Y
1 Z
x Ax'
4.4
4.4
A BCD
sin sin
sin sin
cos sin
cos
Euler theorem
Euler theorem: the general displacement of a rigid
body with one point fixed is a rotation about some
axis
If the fixed point is taken as the origin, then the
displacement of the rigid body involves no
translation; only the change in orientation
If such a rotation could be found, then the axis of
rotation would be unaffected by this transformation
Thus, any vector lying along the axis of rotation
must have the same components before and after the
orthogonal transformation:
R ' AR R
4.6
4.6
Euler theorem
AR R
AR 1R
( A 1)R 0
A 1 0
It can be rewritten for the case of
A 1 0
4.6
Euler theorem
~
Recall the orthogonality condition: A 1 AA 1
~
~
~ ~
~
~
~
( A 1) A 1 A
AA A 1 A
( A 1) A 1 A
~
~
~
~
A 1 A 1 A
A 1 A 1 A
A 1 1 A
A 1 1 A
A 1 1 A
A 1 ( A 1)
A 1 (1) A 1
n
A 1 (1)3 A 1
A 1 0
A 1 A 1
Q.E.D.
4.6
Euler theorem
For 2D case (rotation in a plane) n = 2:
A 1 (1) A 1
n
A 1 A 1
Michel Chasles
(17931880)
( A 1)R 0
Infinitesimal rotations
Let us consider orthogonal transformation matrices
of the following form
A 1
A1 A 2 R A 2 A1R
Infinitesimal rotations do commute
(1 1 )(1 2 ) 1 11 1 2 1 2 1 1 2
(1 2 )(1 1 ) 1 2 1 11 21 1 2 1
4.8
4.8
Infinitesimal rotations
The inverse of the infinitesimal rotation: A 1 1
Proof:(1 ) A (1 )(1 ) 1 1 1 1
~
~
1 1
In 3D we can write:
d 3
d 2
d 3
0
d1
d 2
d1
0
dr r 'r (1 )r r r
(dr )i ij rj
j 1
Infinitesimal rotations
3
(dr )i ij rj
j 1
(dr )1 r2 d 3 r3 d 2
(dr ) 2 r3 d1 r1d 3
(dr ) 3 r1d 2 r2 d1
d 3
d 2
j , k 1
dr r (d)
d 3
d 2
0
d1
d1
0
3
(dr )i ijk rj d k
( d ) n d
dr (r sin )d
4.8
dr ( r n ) d
4.8
Infinitesimal rotations
0
d 2
n
d1
3
n2
d1
0
0 0 0
3
d ni M i
M1 0 0 1
i 1
0 1 0
d 3
d 2
d 3
0
n3
0
n1
n2
n1 d
0
0 0 1
0 1 0
M 2 0 0 0 ; M 3 1 0 0
1 0 0
0 0 0
M i M j M j M i ijk M k
i 1
( d ) n d
4.8
sin sin
sin sin
cos sin
cos
A (d d )
( d d )
d d
1
d
d d
0
d
0
d 1
1
0
d
0
0
d 3
d 2
d 3
0
d1
d 2
d1
0
(d) id k(d d )
4.9
Gi ' aij G j
j 1
aij ij daij ij ij
j 1
j 1
j 1
3
ijk G j d k
3
j ,k 1
dGi ' dGi G d i
ij ijk d k
3
k 1
Dividing by dt
dG ' dG
G
dt
dt
dt d
' G
G
G
4.10
const
rs rr r
v s vr r
d ( vr r )
( v s ) s (v s ) r v s
( vr r )
dt
(vr ) r 2 vr ( r )
ar as 2 vr ( r )
Rotating system: acceleration acquires
Coriolis and centrifugal components
Gaspard-Gustave
Coriolis
(1792 - 1843)
ac v r 2
On the other hand
qB
aL v
m
aL v L
qB
L
m
1.2
1
2
mi ri
Introducing a center of mass: mi ri
R i
i
M
mi ri MR
mi
i
ri ri ' R
ri ri ' R
1
2 1
T mi (ri ) mi (ri ' R ) (ri ' R )
2 i
2 i
1
1
2
mi (ri ' ) mi (ri 'R ) mi ( R ) 2
2 i
2 i
i
1.2
1 2
1
2
mi (ri ' ) R mi ri ' ( R ) mi
2 i
2
i
i
d
1 2
1
2
mi (ri ' ) R mi ri ' ( R ) M
2 i
dt i
2
On the other hand
mi ri MR
i
mi ri ' MR'
i
1
1 2
2
T mi (ri ' ) ( R ) M
2 i
2
1
1 2
2
T mi (ri ' ) ( R ) M
2 i
2
1.2
5.1
5.1
1
TR mi (ri ' ) 2
2 i
1
1 2
2
T mi (ri ' ) ( R ) M
2 i
2
5.3
1
1
1
2
TR mi (ri ' ) mi ri 'ri ' mi ( ri ' ) ( ri ' )
2 i
2 i
2 i
Rate of change of a vector ( r ' ) (r ' ) r '
i
are fixed:
(ri ' ) r 0
3
1
1
TR mi ( ri ' ) ( ri ' ) mi ( ri ' ) j ( ri ' ) j
2 i
2 i
j 1
3
1
mi
2 i
j 1
k ,l 1
jkl
k ri 'l
m , n 1
jmn
m ri 'n
5.3
jkl jmn
1
2 i
j 1 k ,l 1
km l n lm kn
m ,n 1
3
1
mi jkl jmn k m ri 'l ri 'n
2 i j ,k ,l ,m ,n 1
3
1
mi ( km l n lm kn )k m ri 'l ri 'n
2 i k ,l ,m ,n 1
3
3
1
2
2
mi (k ) (ri 'l ) k ri 'k ri 'l l
2 i
k ,l 1
k ,l 1
3
~ I
1 3
1
2
k l mi [(ri ' ) kl ri 'k ri 'l ] k I kl l
2 k ,l 1
2 k ,l 1
2
i
3
5.3
~ I
TR
2
I kl I lk
kl
k l
2
~
~
I
I nIn
TR
n
2
2
2
~In
I
n
Scalar I is called the moment of inertia
Introducing a notation
5.3
2
1
TR mi ( ri ' ) ( ri ' )
2
2 i
mi (n ri ' ) (n ri ' )
i
Therefore
I mi (n ri ' ) (n ri ' )
i
5.3
I 0 mi (n ri ) (n ri ) mi (n (ri ' R )) (n (ri ' R ))
i
2
ri ri ' R
mi (n ri ' ) 2 mi (n ri ' ) (n R )
i
2
mi (n R )
I CM
i
2
2(n mi ri ') (n R ) (n R ) M
i
5.3
2
M (n R)
5.1
points
of the rigid body:
x1y1z1 and x2y2z2
R R R
2
Then ( R2 ) s ( R1 ) s ( R ) s ( R1 ) s ( R ) r 1 R
Similarly ( R1 ) s ( R2 ) s ( R ) s
( R2 ) s ( R ) r 2 R
( R2 ) s ( R1 ) s 1 R
(1 2 ) R 0
( R1 ) s ( R2 ) s 2 R
5.1
(1 2 ) R 0
1 2
The angular velocity vector
is the same for all coordinate
systems fixed in the body
5.3
I kl [(r ) 2 kl rk rl ]dV
V
a a a
a a
0 0 0
5
2
2
a
2
Ma
I 22 I 33
a [(r2 ) 2 (r3 ) 2 ]dr2 dr3
3
3
0 0
5.3
a a a
a a
a5
Ma 2
I12 [r1r2 ]dr1dr2 dr3 a [r1r2 ]dr1dr2
4
4
0 0 0
0 0
I12 I 21 I13 I 31 I 23 I 32
2
3
1
I Ma 2
4
1
4
4
2
3
1
1
4
1
4
2
3
5.1
L mi (ri ri )
i
Rate of change of a vector ( ri ) s (ri ) r ri
are fixed:
(r ) r
(ri ) r 0
i s
Angular momentum of rigid body: L mi (ri ( ri ))
i
3
3
L j mi jkl rik lmn m rin
k ,l 1
i
m
,
n
k ,l , m , n 1
5.1
k , m , n 1
k ,l , m , n 1
jm
r r m mi
jkl lmn ik in
kn jn km )rik rin m mi
3
k 1
L I
Rotational kinetic energy:
~
~
~
L
I L
TR
2
2
2
5.5
5.6
3
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
L T mi (ri ' ) ( R) M k I kl l ( R ) M
2 k ,l 1
2
2 i
2
Recall i dt d i
1 3
T
Then L k I kl
l
CM
2 k ,l 1
We separate the Lagrangian into two independent
parts and consider the rotational part separately
Then, the equations of motion for rotation
d LR
LR
dt
i
i
dt
I ik k 0
k 1
dt
I
k 1
ik
k 0
5.5
5.6
dt
I
k 1
dLi
0
dt
ik
dL
0
dt
k 0
dL
dt
dL
L 0
dt r
3
I
k 1
ik
dt
3
k ,l , m 1
I
k 1
ik
k ikl k Ll 0
k ,l 1
I k l 0
ikl ml
5.4
I 0
0
I2
I 3
I11 I
I12
I13
I 21
I 22 I
I 23
I 31
I 32
I 33 I
5.4
I i i
j , k 1
ijk
j k I k 0
1 3
2
TR I i i
2 i 1
5.4
Lk I k k kn
TR
in I i i
2
i 1
5.6
i
Then, the equations of motion I i
I1 1 2 3 ( I 3 I 2 ) 0
I 2 2 13 ( I1 I 3 ) 0
I 3 3 12 ( I 2 I1 ) 0
j , k 1
ijk
j k I k 0
I1 1 2 3 ( I 3 I 2 ) 0
I 2 2 1 3 ( I1 I 3 ) 0
I 3 3 1 2 ( I 2 I1 ) 0
5.6
I1 1 2 3 ( I 3 I 2 ) 0
I 2 2 1 3 ( I1 I 3 ) 0
I1 I 3
2 1 3
0
I2
I 3 3 1 2 ( I 2 I1 ) 0
I 2 I1
3 1 2
0
I3
1 const
2( 3) 2( 3)
1
( I1 I 2 )( I1 I 3 ) 0
I 2 I3
2
2( 3) 2( 3) K 0
1
K
( I1 I 2 )( I1 I 3 )
I2 I3
5.6
2( 3) 2( 3) K 0
I1 I 2 ; I 1 I 3
I1 I 2 ; I1 I 3
2 ( 3)
K 0
2 ( 3)
K 2
Always stable
I 3 I1 I 2
I 2 I1 I 3
2 (3) 2 2 ( 3) 0
K 0
Exponentially unstable
K 2
2( 3) A2 ( 3) e t
2( 3) A2( 3) et
Classification of tops
Depending on the relative values of the principle
values of inertia, rigid body can be classified as
follows:
Asymmetrical top: I1 I 2 I 3
Symmetrical top: I1 I 2 I 3
Spherical top: I1 I 2 I 3
Rotator: I1 I 2 0; I 3 0
2
3
1
I Ma 2
4
1
4
4
2
3
1
1
4
1
4
2
3
2Ma 2
I
3
Ma 2
4
Ma 2
Ma 2
4
2
2 Ma
I
3
Ma 2
Ma 2
4
Ma 2
0
4
2
2 Ma
I
3
2
2
11Ma
2 Ma
M 2 a 4 Ma 2 2 Ma 2
I
I
I 0
3
8
4
3
12
11Ma 2
2 Ma 2
M 2 a 4 Ma 2 2 Ma 2
I
I
I 0
3
8
4
3
12
2
2
2
11
Ma
Ma
11Ma
I2
; I3
I1
12
6
12
To find the directions of the principal axes we have
to find the directions for the eigenvectors
Ma 2
Let us consider I 3
6
I 3 I 3 1 3
13
3 23
33
213 23
1
33 33
Ma 2
2Ma 2
Ma 2
Ma 2
13
23
33
23
4
3
4
6
13 223
1
33 33
Ma 2
Ma 2
2 Ma 2
Ma 2
13
23
33
33
4
4
3
6
13 23
2
33 33
13 23
13 33
13 23 33
5.6
j , k 1
ijk
j k I k 0
I1 1 2 3 ( I 3 I 2 ) 0
I 2 2 13 ( I1 I 3 ) 0
I 3 3 12 ( I 2 I1 ) 0
I1 I 2 I 3
3 ( I1 I 3 )
1 2
I1
3 ( I1 I 3 )
2 1
I1
3 const
I1 1 2 3 ( I 3 I1 ) 0
I1 2 13 ( I1 I 3 ) 0
I 3 3 0
3 ( I1 I 3 )
1 2
1 1
I1
1 A cos t
2 A sin t
5.5
I i i
j , k 1
ijk
j k I k N i
; ;
5.7
4.9
4.9
0
y A 0
sin sin
x
y cos sin
cos
z
sin sin
sin sin
cos sin
cos
4.9
0
y B 0
z
0
0
cos
x
cos
B sin
sin
cos
0
0
1
y sin
0
z
4.9
0
0
x 0
y 0
z
x cos
y sin
0
z
x sin sin
y cos sin
cos
z
4.9
x 0
y 0
z
x cos
y sin
0
z
x sin sin
y cos sin
cos
z
5.7
fixed
m r MR
i i
L T V
2
2
2
T TTranslatio n TRotation I1 (1 2 ) I 33
2
2
V r gdV g r dV g RM
The Lagrangian:
V gRM cos
I1 I 2
5.7
fixed
2
2
2
I 33
I1 (1 2 ) I 3 ( cos
2
2
2
cos
2
5.7
L
L
0;
0
L
p I 3 ( cos 2 cos ) I1 ( sin 2 ) const I1b
L
p
I 3 ( cos ) const I1a
5.7
L
The Lagrangian does not contain time explicitly
0
t
Thus, the total energy of the system is conserved
( cos ) 2
2 sin 2 2
E I3
I1
gRM cos const
2
2
To solve the problem completely, we need three
additional quadratures
We will look for them, using the conserved
quantities
5.7
I 3 I1a I 3 cos
2
2
b a cos
sin 2
f1 ( )
( f1 ( ) cos f 2 ( )) 2
f1 ( ) 2 sin 2 2
E I3
I1
gRM cos
2
2
One variable only: we can find all the quadratures!
5.7
( f1 ( ) cos f 2 ( )) 2
f1 ( ) 2 sin 2 2
E I3
I1
gRM cos
2
2
I1 2 I 3 ( f1 ( ) cos f 2 ( )) 2 I1 f1 ( ) 2 sin 2
E
RMg cos
2
2
2
We have an equivalent 1D problem with an effective
potential!
I 3 ( f1 ( ) cos f 2 ( )) 2 I1 f1 ( ) 2 sin 2
Veff ( )
RMg cos
2
2
( I1a ) 2 I1 (b a cos ) 2
gRM cos
2
2I3
2 sin
I1 (b a cos ) 2
Veff ' ( )
gRM cos I ( cos ) I a
2
3
1
2 sin
5.7
dt
2[ E 'Veff ' ( )]
I1
5.7
b a cos
sin 2
5.9
L
i
qi (ri ) qi (ri A)
A Cr
Ai (C r ) i
j , k 1
ijk
C j rk
B A
Bn ( A) n
rk
nmi ijk C j
rm
i , j , k , m 1
3
j , k , m 1
m ,i 1
nmi
( nj mk
Ai
rm
rk
nk mj )C j
rm
5.9
B
Br
C
A
2
2
3
mi (ri , x ri , y ri , z )
qi (ri ) qi
B ri
ri
2
5.9
q
B
r
i
L
qi (ri ) ri i
2
2
i
qi B ri
qi B
i ri 2 i 2m (ri ri mi )
i
Let us assume a uniform charge/mass ratio
~
qB ( q / m ) B
qB
L
(ri ri mi )
L
2m i
2m
2
Recall rotational kinetic energy
~L
TR
2
a (b c ) b (c a )
5.4
Radius of gyration
FYI: radius of gyration is
R0
I MR0
I
M
I 2 M ( R0 ) 2
TR
2
2