Slide 1

6
Basic Principles
of Learning

2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Basic Principles of Learning

Definition of Learning
Relative permanent change in behavior
brought about through experience or
interactions with the environment
Not all changes result from learning
Change in behavior not always immediate

Years of isolating and studying behavior

produced different principles of learning

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Slide 2

Slide 3

Conditioning

Conditioning : process of learning

associations between environmental
stimuli and behavioral responses

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Slide 4

Factors of Learning
Association: Horn-Car, Symbol-Direction,
Smoke-Fire

Reinforcement: that strengthen the association

of stimulus. Positive or negative consequences of
a behavior.
Continuity: Faster presentation of unconditioned
stimulus after the presentation of conditioned
stimulus
Motives: a precondition for any type of learning
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Slide 5

Types of Learning
1. Classical Conditioning
2. Instrumental Learning/Operant Learning
3. Cognitive Learning
4. Latent Learning
5. Perceptual Learning

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Slide 6

Classical Conditioning
Pavlovs
Contribution

Classical
Conditioning:

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learning that occurs

when a neutral
stimulus (NS) becomes
paired (associated)
with an unconditioned
stimulus (UCS) to
elicit a conditioned
response (CR)

Basic Principles of Learning

Slide 7

Classical Conditioning:
Learning by Association
Ivan Pavlov in Russia
Nobel Prize for saliva in digestion
Reflexive response controlled by arbitrary
stimulus (salivation when attendant approached)

Association - key element

First recognized by Aristotle
Pavlov: classical conditioning was form of
learning through association
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Pavlovs Experiment
Observation screen
Container of
meat powder
Revolving drum for
recording responses

Device to count
drops of saliva
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Tube for
collection
of saliva

Slide 8

Slide 9

Pavlovs Experiment

Neutral stimulus
(metronome)

CR (salivation)

Before classical conditioning: initially,

the metronome is a neutral stimulus that
does not elicit the response of salivation

B
UCR
(meat powder)

UCR (salivation)

But the unconditioned stimulus

(UCS) can elicit the unconditioned
response (UCR)

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Slide 10

Neutral stimulus
(metronome)

UCR
(meat powder)

UCR (salivation)

Conditioning procedure: during the

classical conditioning procedure, the
neutral stimulus is presented in association
with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to
elicit the unconditioned response (UCR)

CS (metronome)

CR (salivation)

Test of conditioning: after classical

conditioning, the neutral stimulus
becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS)
that elicits the conditioned response
(CR) of salivation

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Basic Principles of Learning

Pavlovs Experiments
Systematic, effective, precise studies
Association of two stimuli
The more frequently the metronome and
food are associated, the more often the
metronome will elicit salivation
Timing of association is highly important
Longer time intervals were less effective;
almost no learning occurred
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Slide 11

Slide 12

Additional Example of Classical

Conditioning
Generalization: When a conditioned response
to a stimulus has been acquired, other similar
stimuli will evoke the same response.

Discrimination: A process complementary

to generalization discrimination. Whereas
generalization is reaction to similarities,
discrimination is reaction to differences.

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Pavlovs Studies: the more often the

metronome was associated in time with meat
powder, the more effective in eliciting saliva
8
7
Number of
drops of
saliva
elicited by
metronome
alone

6
5
4
3
2
1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Number of times metronome and meat powder were presented together

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Slide 13

Basic Principles of Learning

Slide 14

Terminology of Classical Conditioning

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
Elicits response without learning

Unconditioned response (UCR)

Unlearned, inborn response

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

Acquires ability to elicit after paired
association with unconditioned stimulus

Conditioned response (CR)

Elicited by conditioned stimulus
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Slide 15

Application of Terminology
to Pavlovs Experiment

UCS

(meat powder)

UCR
CR (Salivation)

CS

(metronome)

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Basic Principles of Learning

Definition of Classical Conditioning

Form of learning in which
CS followed by UCS elicits UCR
Pairing of CS and UCS allows CS to elicit CR
almost identical or similar to UCR

Considered learning because

New behavior acquired
Old behavior elicited by new stimulus
Does not depend on behavior of individual
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Slide 16

LO 5.7

Operant conditioning and Thorndikes law of effect

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning - the learning of

voluntary behavior through the effects
of pleasant and unpleasant
consequences to responses.
Thorndikes Law of Effect - law stating
that if a response is followed by a
pleasurable consequence, it will tend to
be repeated, and if followed by an
unpleasant consequence, it will tend not
to be repeated.
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LO 5.7

Operant conditioning and Thorndikes law

of effect

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LO 5.7

Operant conditioning and Thorndikes law

of effect

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LO 5.8

Skinners contribution to operant conditioning

Skinners Contribution

Behaviorist; wanted to
study only observable,
measurable behavior.
Gave operant conditioning
its name.
Operant - any behavior that is
voluntary.

Learning depends on what

happens after the response
the consequence.
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LO 5.8

Skinners contribution to operant conditioning

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LO 5.9

Important concepts in operant conditioning

Reinforcement

Reinforcement - any event or stimulus, that

when following a response, increases the
probability that the response will occur again.
Primary reinforcer - any reinforcer that is naturally
reinforcing by meeting a basic biological need,
such as hunger, thirst, or touch.
Secondary reinforcer - any reinforcer that
becomes reinforcing after being paired with a
primary reinforcer, such as praise, tokens, or gold
stars.

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LO 5.9

Important concepts in operant conditioning

Positive and Negative

Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement the reinforcement of a
response by the addition
or experiencing of a
pleasurable stimulus.
Negative reinforcement the reinforcement of a
response by the removal,
escape from, or
avoidance of an
unpleasant stimulus.

Example:
Taking aspirin
for a headache
is negatively
reinforced
removal of
headache!
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LO 5.9

Important concepts in operant conditioning

Shaping

Shaping - the reinforcement of

simple steps in behavior that
lead to a desired, more
complex behavior.
Successive approximations small steps in behavior, one
after the other, that lead to a
particular goal behavior.
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LO 5.9

Important concepts in operant conditioning

Other Classical Conditioning Concepts

Extinction occurs if the behavior

(response) is not reinforced.
Operantly conditioned responses
also can be generalized to stimuli
that are only similar to the original
stimulus.
Spotaneous recovery
(reoccurrence of a once
extinguished response) also
happens in operant conditioning.

One way to deal with

a childs temper
tantrum is to ignore it.
The lack of
reinforcement for the
tantrum behavior
will eventually result in
extinction.
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LO 5.9

Important concepts in operant conditioning

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LO 5.10 Schedules of reinforcement

Schedules of Reinforcement

Partial reinforcement effect - the tendency for a

response that is reinforced after some, but not
all, correct responses to be very resistant to
extinction.
Continuous reinforcement - the reinforcement of
each and every correct response.

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LO 5.10 Schedules of reinforcement

Schedules of Reinforcement

Fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement schedule of reinforcement in which the

number of responses required for
reinforcement is always the same.
Variable ratio schedule of reinforcement schedule of reinforcement in which the
number of responses required for
reinforcement is different for each trial or
event.

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LO 5.10 Schedules of reinforcement

Schedules of Reinforcement

Fixed interval schedule - of reinforcement

schedule of reinforcement in which the
interval of time that must pass before
reinforcement becomes possible is always
the same.
Variable interval schedule of reinforcement schedule of reinforcement in which the
interval of time that must pass before
reinforcement becomes possible is different
for each trial or event.

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LO 5.10 Schedules of reinforcement

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LO 5.11 How punishment affects behavior

Punishment

Punishment - any event or object that,

when following a response, makes that
response less likely to happen again.
Punishment by application - the
punishment of a response by the
addition or experiencing of an
unpleasant stimulus.
Punishment by removal - the
punishment of a response by the
removal of a pleasurable stimulus.
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LO 5.11 How punishment affects behavior

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LO 5.11 How punishment affects behavior

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LO 5.11 How punishment affects behavior

How to Make Punishment More Effective

1.
2.
3.

Punishment should immediately follow

the behavior it is meant to punish.
Punishment should be consistent.
Punishment of the wrong behavior
should be paired, whenever possible,
with reinforcement of the right
behavior.
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LO 5.12 How operant stimuli control behavior

Operant Stimuli and Stimulus

Control

Discriminative stimulus - any stimulus,

such as a stop sign or a doorknob, that
provides the organism with a cue for
making a certain response in order to
obtain reinforcement.

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LO 5.13 Kind of behavior resistant to conditioning

Behavior Resistant to
Conditioning
Instinctive drift - tendency for an
animals behavior to revert to genetically
controlled patterns.
Each animal comes into the world (and the
laboratory) with certain genetically
determined instinctive patterns of behavior
already in place.
These instincts differ from species to
species.
There are some responses that simply
cannot be trained into an animal regardless
of conditioning.

Raccoons commonly
dunk their food in
and out of water
before eating. This
washing behavior is
controlled by
instinct and difficult to
change even
using operant
techniques.

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LO 5.14 Behavior modification

Behavior Modification

Behavior modification - the use of operant

conditioning techniques to bring about desired
changes in behavior.
Token economy - type of behavior modification in
which desired behavior is rewarded with tokens.
Time-out - a form of mild punishment by removal in
which a misbehaving animal, child, or adult is placed
in a special area away from the attention of others.
Essentially, the organism is being removed from any
possibility of positive reinforcement in the form of attention.

Applied behavior analysis (ABA) modern term for a

form of behavior modification that uses shaping
techniques to mold a desired behavior or response.

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LO 5.16 Cognitive learning theory

Cognitive Learning Theory

Early days of learning focus was on

behavior.
1950s and more intensely in the 1960s,
many psychologists were becoming
aware that cognition, the mental events
that take place inside a persons mind
while behaving, could no longer be
ignored.
Edward Tolman early cognitive
scientist.
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LO 5.17 Tolmans classic study on latent learning

Latent Learning

Edward Tolmans best-known experiments in

learning involved teaching three groups of rats
the same maze, one at a time (Tolman &
Honzik, 1930).
Group 1 rewarded each time at end of maze.
Learned maze quickly.

Group 2 in maze every day; only rewarded on 10th

day.
Demonstrated learning of maze almost immediately after
receiving reward.

Group 3 never rewarded.

Did not learn maze well.

Latent learning - learning that remains hidden

until its application becomes useful.
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Basic Principles of Learning

Contrasting Classical and

Operant Conditioning
Classical
conditioning
involves

Association
between two
stimuli
Reflexive,
involuntary
behaviors
UCS making
behavior happen

Operant conditioning
involves
Association between
response and
consequence
More complicated
voluntary behaviors
Reinforcing consequence
occurring only if desired
response is given