Equalization

BEIT- 5th Semester

Agenda
Nyquist

criterion for zero ISI

Zero forcing equalizer

BEIT- 5th Semester

Intersymbol Interference (ISI)

Spreading

of a pulse beyond Tb will cause

interference with neighboring pulses
ISI.
Nyquist Criterion for zero ISI,
= 1 for t = 0
p(t)
= 0 for t = nTb
BEIT- 5th Semester

Pulse satisfying Nyquist Criterion

p(t)
1
P(w)

-Rb

Rb

-3/Rb -2/Rb -1/Rb

for t = 0

for t = nTb

1/Rb

2/Rb

p(t) = sinc(R bt) =

BEIT- 5th Semester

Raised Cosine function:

cos(Rb t )
p( t ) Rb
sin c(Rb t )
2 2
1 4 Rb t

|P()|
1

The characteristic is also

called full-cosine-roll off
characteristic.
0
Decays as 1/t3
The time domain representation
is (taking inverse Fourier Transform),

P ( )
cos 2 (

x = 0
x = b/4
x = b/2

p(t)

(1 cos
)rect (
)
2
2 Rb
4Rb

)rect (
)
4 Rb
4Rb

[Ref. B.P.Lathi, Ch. 7]

2Tb

-Tb

Tb

2T

BEIT, 5th Semester

b

Which one is really required?

Eliminate or minimize ISI with neighboring

pulses at all instance of time t.

Eliminate or minimize ISI with neighboring

pulses at their respective sampling instances
when decision is made.

BEIT- 5th Semester

Zero Forcing Equalizer

p0(t)

pr(t)

(N+2)Tb

(N-2)Tb
-2Tb

-Tb

Tb

2Tb

Input

(N-1)Tb

NTb

(N+1)Tb

Output
BEIT- 5th Semester

Zero Forcing Equalizer

pr(t)
C-N

Hf

CN -1

C-N+1

p0 ( t )

CN

n N

BEIT- 5th Semester

pr ( t nTb )

Set of 2N+1 simultaneous

equations in 2N+1 variables

Filter output p0(t) is pr(t NTb), delayed version of pr(t)

The samples of p0(t) at t = kTb are,

p0 ( kTb )

n N

pr [( k n)Tb ]

with k = 1, 2, ..., N

Nyquist criterion requires,

1 For k = 0
p0 [k ]
0 For k = 1, 2, ..., N

BEIT- 5th Semester

Set of 2N+1 simultaneous

equations in 2N+1 variables
p r [0]
0

0
p r [1]

...

p r [N - 1]
0
p [N]
1
r

p r [N 1]
0
...
...

0
p r [2N - 1]

p r [2N]
0

p r [-1]

...

p r [0]

...

p r [N - 2] ...
p r [N - 1] ...
p r [N]

...

p r [2N - 2] ...
p r [2N - 1] ...
BEIT- 5th Semester

p r [-2N 1]

p r [-N - 1]

p r [-N]

p r [-N 1]

p r [1]

p r [0]

c N

c
N 1

p r [-2N]

...

c 1

c
0

c1
...

c N 1
c N
10

Example:

pr(0) = 1;

pr(1) = -0.3; pr(2) = 0.1

pr(-1) = -0.2; pr(-2) = 0.05

Find C-1, C0, C1.

Design the three-tap gain equalizer

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Example:

pr(0) = 1;

pr(1) = -0.3; pr(2) = 0.1

pr(-1) = -0.2; pr(-2) = 0.05

- 0.2
0
1
1 - 0.3
1

0
0.1
- 0.3
BEIT- 5th Semester

0.05 c 1

- 0.2 c0
1 c1
12

Example:

pr(0) = 1;

pr(1) = -0.3; pr(2) = 0.1

pr(-1) = -0.2; pr(-2) = 0.05

- 0.2
0
1
1 - 0.3
1

0
0.1
- 0.3

0.05 c 1

- 0.2 c0
1 c1

c-1 = 0.210, c0 = 1.13, c1 = 0.318

BEIT- 5th Semester

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BEIT- 5th Semester

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Synchronization

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Synchronization Technique
Clocks

at transmitter and receiver tick together

Synchronization of

Symbols
Frame

General

methods

One master clock for Tx and Rx

Transmitting separate synchronization signal (pilot)
Self synchronization
BEIT- 5th Semester

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Synchronization in a Receiver
LPF

Regenerator

Bit
Sync

Clock

Output
message

Frame
Sync
Frame
indicator

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Open-loop Bit Synchronizer

y(t)

Square Law
Device

cos(2rbt + )

y (t)
2

BPF

Phase
Adjust

To
clock

y(t) = cos(2rbt + )

y2(t)
rb
cos(2rbt)

BEIT- 5th Semester

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Closed-loop Bit Synchronizer

y(t)

v(t)

Zero Crossing
Detector

z(t)

Integrator

Voltage-controlled c(t)
Clock

LPF

c(t)

y(t)
t
z(t)

Tb/2
t

c(t)

t
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Tb
y(t)
t
z(t)

Tb/2
t

c(t)
Tb/4
z(t)c(t)

t
t

v(t)

t
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Matched Filter

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Matched Filter
| g 0 (T ) | 2
Signal to noise ratio =
E[n 2 (t )]

(1)

G(f) Fourier Transform of the known signal g(t)

H(f) Frequency response of the filter
g(t)

x(t)

Linear time invariant

filter of impulse
response h(t)

y(t)

y(T)

White noise
w(t)
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 max

N0

Maximum

2
|
G
(
f
)
|
df

(2)

noise with white noise w(t) having

power spectral density N0/2.

Correspondingly

Hopt(f),

H(f) assumes its optimum value

H opt ( f ) kG * ( f ) exp( j 2fT )

Taking

(3)

inverse Fourier transform we get,

(4)
h (t ) k G ( f ) exp[ j 2f (T t )]df
Since for a real signal g(t) we have G*(f) = G(-f),
we may write

opt

hopt (t ) k G ( f ) exp[ j 2f (T t )]df

k G ( f ) exp[ j 2f (T t )]df kg (T t )

BEIT- 5th Semester

(5)
23

Matched Filter for Rectangular Pulse

g(t)

A
Energy = A2T

0
g(t)

0
g(t)

(a)

kA2T

(b)

AT
0

(c)

BEIT- 5th Semester

G(t) input
rectangular pulse
For a special
case, matched
filter may be
realized with an
integrate-anddump-circuit.

Figures:
a) Rectangular pulse,
b) Matched filter output24
c) Integrator output

BEIT- 5th Semester