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CHEMISTRY PART-II
5. Chemistry of Elements
Dr.rer.nat. I Wayan Karyasa, M.Sc.
Program Studi S-2 Sains
PPS - UNDIKSHA
A. Hydrogen
Hydrogen named after the Greek
word for "water_forming"
In 1671, Robert Boyle discovered
hydrogen.
It is most abundant element in the
Universe. Hydrogen is found
everywhere and in most compounds.
Hydrogen is rarely found as a gas on
Earth and it catches fire and it can be
explosive.
Hydrogen has three isot0pes:
hydrogen H1 (symbol: H) natural
abundance 99.985%
deuterium H2 (symbol: D) natural
abundance 0.015%
3
Compounds of Hydrogen
1.Water (H2O)
2. Hydride
Ionic hydrides
CaH2
Covalent hydrides
Interstitial hydrides
Ni-H batteries
B. Alkali Metals
The alkali metals are the elements located in Group IA of the
periodic table. The alkali metals are lithium, sodium, potassium,
rubidium, cesium, and francium.
1. Shiny 'metallic' appearance
2. Solids at room temperature (except
mercury)
3. High melting points
4. High densities
5. Large atomic radii
6. Low ionization energies
7. Low electronegativities
8. Usually, high deformation
9. Malleable
10.Ductile
11.Thermal conductors
12.Electrical conductors
Sodium
D. Aluminium
Aluminium is an abundant element in the earth's
crust
(7.5% by mass), but it is not found free in nature.
Aluminium is a silvery-white metal with many
desirable characteristics. It is light, nontoxic (as
the metal), nonmagnetic and nonsparking. It is
easily formed, machined, and cast. Aluminium is
soft and lacks strength, but alloys with small
amounts of copper, magnesium, silicon,
manganese, and other elements have very useful
properties.
The main mineral of alumnium is
bauxite(Al2O3.2H2O) contaminated with silica
(SiO2), iron oxide (Fe2O3), and titanium (IV) oxide
(TiO2). The Bayer process is used to refine
aluminium from bauxite:
SiO2(s) + 2 NaOH(aq) Na2SiO3 (aq) +
H2O(l)
A2O3(s) + 2 NaOH(aq) 2NaAlO2 (aq) +
H2O(l)
E. Carbon
Compounds of carbon
(inorganic)
Carbon combines with metals to form carbides, there
are ionic (CaC2, Be2C, Al4C3); covalent (SiC); and
interstitial (WC).
Cyanide compounds contain the anion group of :CN:Cyanide ions are extremely toxic. HCN has the aroma
of bitter almonds, it is toxic, volatile, and very weak
acid.
Cyanide ions are used to extract gold and silver.
4Au(s) + 8CN-(aq) +O2(g) + 2H2O(l)
4[Au(CN)2]2-(aq)
+
4OH-(aq)
F. Nitrogen and
Phosphorus
G. Oxygen and
Sulfur
H. Halogen
Properties
The electronegativity of halogens decrease down
the group. Fluorine is very reactive and is the most
electronegative element.
Physical property. The halogens boiling points
which increase down group seven. This is because
the atoms get bigger and so the Van der Waals
forces get smaller.
Chemical property. The oxidising power of the
Halides
A halide is simply the ion of a halogen. Their ability to reduce
increases down the group from F to I.
The reactions of NaX (where X is a halogen) with sulphuric acid,
H2SO4.
NaX
Observations
Products
Fluorine
Steamy fumes
HF
Chlorine
Steamy fumes
HCl
Bromine
Steamy fume
Colourless gas
Brown fumes
HBr
SO2
Br2
Iodine
Steamy fumes
Colourless gas
Yellow solid
Rotten eggs smell
A black solid a
purple fumes
HI
SO2
S
H2S
I2
Salt Formation
Halogens will react with metals to form salts.
For example, if chlorine gas is passed over a
heated iron wire, a brown solid is formed upon
cooling.
iron + chlorine -> iron (III) chloride
2Fe(s) + 3Cl2 (g) -> 2FeCl2 (s)
The most reactive halogen is fluorine, and
they become less reactive as you go down.
Due to this, a more reactive halogen will
displace a less reactive one. For example,
when chlorine gas is bubbled though
potassium bromide solution.
I. Transition
Metals
General Properties
Redox Titrations
Titrations are important in analysing solutions. For example, testing the amount of
iron in an iron tablet. This can be done by reacting Fe2+ with either MnO4- manganate (VII) or Cr2O7- - dichromate (VI).
First, the tablet will be dissolved in acid. Dilute sulphuric acid is used because it is
strong, isn't an oxidising agent (as concentrated sulphuric acid is) and will not be
oxidised.
The manganate ion is added from the burette in the form of potassium
manganate which is dark purple, but the reaction product is colourless so when
the end-point is reached the solution will be purple. The following reaction occurs.
MnO4- + 8H+ + 5e- Mn2+ + 4H2O
Fe2+ Fe3+ + eOverall:
5Fe2+ + MnO4- + 8H+ 5Fe3+ + Mn2+ + 4H2O
If potassium dichromate is used instead, an indicator must be used,
this is commonly sodium diphenylaminesulphonate. The overall
reaction for this is.
6Fe2+ + Cr2O72- + 14H+ 6Fe3+ + 2Cr3+ + 7H2O
Example:
GENERAL
CHEMISTRY PART-II
6. Nuclear Chemistry
Dr.rer.nat. I Wayan Karyasa, M.Sc.
Program Studi S-2 Sains
PPS - UNDIKSHA
INTRODUCTION
Nuclear chemistry is the study
of reactions involving changes
in atomic nuclei. It began with
the discover of natural
radioactivity by Antoine
Becquerel and continued by
Pierre and Marie Curie.
Atomic bombs, hydrogen
bombs, neutron bombs, even
the peaceful use of nuclear
energy has become
controversial, in part because
of safety concerns about
nuclear power plants and also
NUCLEAR STRUCTURE
Fission
When atoms are bombarded with neutrons, their
nuclei splits into 2 parts which are roughly equal in
size.
Nuclear fission in the process whereby a nucleus,
with a high mass number, splits into 2 nuclei which
have roughly equal smaller mass numbers.
During nuclear fission, neutrons are
released.
Nuclear Fission
There are 2 types of fission that exist:
1. Spontaneous Fission
2. Induced Fission
Spontaneous Fission
Some radioisotopes contain nuclei which are
highly unstable and decay spontaneously by
splitting into 2 smaller nuclei.
Such spontaneous decays are accompanied by
the release of neutrons.
Induced Fission
Nuclear fission can be induced by bombarding
atoms with neutrons.
The nuclei of the atoms then split into 2 equal parts.
Induced fission decays are also accompanied by
the release of neutrons.
1
0n
235
92 U
1
0n
235
92 U
1
0n
235
92 U
1
0n
235
92 U
236
92 U
1
0n
92
36 Kr
1
0n
1
0n
92
36 Kr
1
0n
1
0n
92
36 Kr
1
141
92
235
138
96
U
n
+
92
0
U
n
+
92
0
Ba
Kr
n
3
+
+
56
36
0
Cs
Rb
n
2
+
+
55
37
0
U
n
+
92
0
Element
96
55Cs
2.2895 x 10-25
37Rb
1.5925 x 10-25
0n
1.6750 x 10-27
138
Cs
Rb
n
2
+
+
55
37
0
92U
235
96
138
=3.91550 x 10-25 kg
Energy Released
The energy released can be calculated using the equation:
E = mc2
c2
Where:
E = energy released (J)
m = mass difference (kg)
c = speed of light in a vacuum (3 x 108 ms-1)
235
U + 0n
92
m = 2.65 x 10-28 kg
c = 3 x 108 ms-1
E=E
138
96
Cs + 37Rb+ 20n
55
E = mc2
E = 2.65 x 10-28 x (3 x 108)2
E = 2.385 x 10-11 J
Nuclear Fusion
In nuclear fusion, two nuclei with low mass numbers
combine to produce a single nucleus with a higher
mass number.
2
1
H + 1H
He+0n+Energy
3
1H
3
1H
2
1H
3
1H
2
1H
3
1H
1
0n
4
2 He
EN
E
RG
Y
EN
E
RG
Y
4
2 He
EN
E
RG
Y
4
2 He
EN
E
RG
Y
H + 1H
He+0n +Energy
Element
1H
3.345 x 10-27
1H
5.008 x 10-27
2He
6.647 x 10-27
0n
1.6750 x 10-27
H
H
+
1
1
Energy
He
n
+
+
2
0
H
H
+
1
1
m = 3.1 x 10-29 kg
c = 3 x 108 ms-1
E=E
Energy
He
n
+
+
2
0
E = mc2
E = 3.1 x 10-29 x (3 x 108)2
E = 2.79 x 10-12 J
Radioactivity
The word radioactivity was
Radioactivity
Scientists quickly learned
Radioactivity
We now know that
Radioactivity
In alpha decay, the nucleus ejects two protons and
two neutrons.
Beta decay occurs when a neutron in the nucleus
splits into a proton and an electron.
Gamma decay is not truly a decay reaction in the
sense that the nucleus becomes something different.
Radioactivity
Radioactive decay gives off energy.
The energy comes from the conversion of
Radioactivity
If you started with one kilogram of C-14 it would
Radioactivity
Systems move from higher energy to lower energy
over time.
A ball rolls downhill to the lowest point or a hot cup of
coffee cools down.
A radioactive nucleus decays because the neutrons
and protons have lower overall energy in the final
nucleus than they had in the original nucleus.
Radioactivity
The radioactive decay of C-14 does not happen
Radioactivity
Radioactive decay depends on chance.
It is possible to predict the average behavior
Half-life
The half-life of carbon-
14 is about 5,700
years.
If you start out with
200 grams of C-14,
5,700 years later only
100 grams will still be
C-14.
The rest will have
decayed to nitrogen14.
Half-life
Most radioactive
materials decay in a
series of reactions.
Radon gas comes from
the decay of uranium
in the soil.
Uranium (U-238)
decays to radon-222
(Ra-222).
Applications of
radioactivity
Many satellites use radioactive decay from
Carbon dating
Radiation
Key Question:
What are some types
and sources of
radiation?
Radiation
The word radiation means the flow of energy
through space.
There are many forms of radiation.
Light, radio waves, microwaves, and x-rays
are forms of electromagnetic radiation.
Many people mistakenly think of radiation as
only associated with nuclear reactions.
Radiation
The intensity of radiation measures how much
Intensity
Intensity (W/m )
2
I=P
A
Power (watt)
Area (m2)
Harmful radiation
Radiation becomes
Harmful radiation
Ionizing radiation absorbed by people is
Sources of radiation
Ionizing radiation is a natural part of our
environment.
There are two chief sources of radiation you will
probably be exposed to:
background radiation.
radiation from medical procedures such as x-rays.
Background radiation
Background radiation
X-ray machines
X-rays are photons, like
X-ray machines
Therapeutic x-rays are
CAT scan
The advent of powerful
CAT scan
People who work with
twin.
Antimatter is the same as regular matter
Neutrinos
When beta decay was first discovered,
Neutrinos
Despite the difficulty of
detection, several
carefully constructed
neutrino experiments
have detected
neutrinos coming from
nuclear reactions in the
sun.
Application: Nuclear
Power