Hydropower Planning

By
Dr Muhammad Adil Khattak
017.8272871 muhdadil@utm.my

Hydrologic Cycle
Earth's water is always in
movement, and the natural water
cycle, also known as the hydrologic
cycle, describes the continuous
movement of water on, above, and
below the surface of the Earth.
Water is always changing states
between liquid, vapor, and ice, with
these processes happening in the
blink of an eye and over millions of
years.
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What is Green House Gases

(GHG) Effect
Carbon dioxide gas acts like the glass in
a greenhouse
Infrared radiation from the Sun is
usually reflected back into space
Greenhouse gases stop this, and heat is
reflected back to the Earth again

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Effect of GHG on Hydrologic Cycle

Problems with Burning Fossil Fuels
Huge amounts of carbon dioxide are given off into the
atmosphere
Carbon dioxide causes global warming or the greenhouse
effect
Coal-burning power stations also give off sulphur dioxide
gas which leads to acid rain
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Dr MAK Hydropower Planning Hydro Power plants

What are the problems with global

warming?
The average temperature of the Earth will rise.
This can lead to droughts.
Extremes of weather will occur hurricanes
and storms.
The increase in temperature will speed up the
melting of the polar ice caps.
Global warming will therefore lead to floods.
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Green House Gas Impact to Climate

Change

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Rainfall Characteristics
Precipitation in arid and semi-arid zones results largely
from convective cloud mechanisms producing storms
typically of short duration, relatively high intensity and
limited areal extent. However, low intensity frontal-type
rains are also experienced, usually in the winter season.
Rainfall intensity is defined as the ratio of the total
amount of rain (rainfall depth) falling during a given
period to the duration of the period It is expressed in
depth units per unit time, usually as mm per hour (mm/h).
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Analysis of Rainfall
In temperate climates, the standard deviation of annual
rainfall is about 10-20 percent.
The rainfall is determined by means of a statistical
probability analysis.
The first step is to obtain annual rainfall totals for the
season from the area of concern.
In locations where rainfall records do not exist, figures
from stations nearby may be used with caution.
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Analysis of Rainfall
It is important to obtain long-term records.
An analysis of only 5 or 6 years of observations is
inadequate as these 5 or 6 values may belong to a
particularly dry or wet period and hence may not be
representative for the long term rainfall pattern.

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Analysis of Rainfall
It is important to obtain long-term records.
An analysis of only 5 or 6 years of observations is
inadequate as these 5 or 6 values may belong to a
particularly dry or wet period and hence may not be
representative for the long term rainfall pattern.

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Surface Runoff
When rain falls, the first drops of water are intercepted by
the leaves and stems of the vegetation. This is usually
referred to as interception storage.
As the rain continues, water reaching the ground surface
infiltrates into the soil until it reaches a stage where the
rate of rainfall (intensity) exceeds the infiltration capacity
of the soil. Thereafter, surface puddles, ditches, and other
depressions are filled (depression storage), after which
runoff is generated.
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Schematic diagram illustrating relationship between rainfall,

infiltration
and
runof
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Surface Runoff
The infiltration capacity of the soil depends on its texture
and structure, as well as on the antecedent soil moisture
content (previous rainfall or dry season).
The initial capacity (of a dry soil) is high but, as the storm
continues, it decreases until it reaches a steady value
termed as final infiltration rate.
The process of runoff generation continues as long as the
rainfall intensity exceeds the actual infiltration capacity of
the soil but it stops as soon as the rate of rainfall drops
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below the actual rate of infiltration.

Factors Affecting Runoff

Apart from rainfall characteristics such as intensity,
duration and distribution, there are a number of site (or
catchment) specific factors which have a direct bearing on
the occurrence and volume of runoff.
Soil type
Vegetation
Slope and catchment size

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Soil Type
The infiltration capacity is among others dependent on the
porosity of a soil which determines the water storage
capacity and affects the resistance of water to flow into
deeper layers.
Porosity differs from one soil type to the other. The
highest infiltration capacities are observed in loose, sandy
soils while heavy clay or loamy soils have considerable
smaller infiltration capacities.
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Soil Type
Figure illustrates the difference in
infiltration capacities measured in
different soil types.
The infiltration capacity depends
furthermore on the moisture content
prevailing in a soil at the onset of a
rainstorm.

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Vegetation
The amount of rain lost to interception storage on the
foliage depends on the kind of vegetation and its growth
stage.
Values of interception are between 1 and 4 mm. A cereal
crop, for example, has a smaller storage capacity than a
dense grass cover.
More significant is the effect the vegetation has on the
infiltration capacity of the soil. A dense vegetation cover
shields the soil from the raindrop impact and reduces the
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crusting effect as described earlier.

Effects of development on runoff

Natural Landscape
Low runoff
High infiltration and
recharge
Healthy summer stream
flow
Natural pollutant
Developed
treatment
- High runoff, low
recharge
- Lower water tables
- Low stream flow
-Nuisance flooding
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Measuring river runoff

Rainfall has an effect on stream flow and hydraulics tends
to measure the relationship between rainfall and stream
flow.
The aim of measuring stream flow is mainly in
establishing a stage discharge relationship.

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Stage-discharge Relations
Simultaneous measurements of stage and discharge
provide a calibration graph known as stage-discharge
relations or rating curve.
Stage: Height of stream level measured from an
arbitrary datum.
Depth: Measured from the bottom of the channel.
The datum can also be the mean sea level. A plot of stage
vs discharge is made to obtain a rating curve.
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Measuring river runoff

Steps:
Measure stream stage (height of water surface).
Measure discharge.
Define relationship between stage and discharge.

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Rules Guiding Location of

Gauges
a) Gauges should not be located in rivers with scouring
characteristics.
b) The locations should stir clear of river bends because
the water surface is inclined and there is turbulence
making the stage measurement inconsistent.
c) The upstream of a natural control eg. a rapid should be
used, not downstream.
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Rules Guiding Location of

Gauges
d) A uniform channel helps good stage measurement.
Irregular cross sections should be avoided.

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