Ir.

Mochamad Dady Mamun Phd

Teknik Penerbangan
UNIVERSITAS NURTANIO

Fundamentals of Heat Transfer Frank

P. Incropera, David P. De Witt
Heat Transfer J.P. Holman

Heat is a form of energy that can be transferred

from one system to another as a result of
temperature difference. The science that deals
with the determination of the rates of such
energy transfer is heat transfer.
The science of heat transfer seeks not merely to
explain how heat energy may be transferred, but
also to predict the rate at which the exchange
will take place under certain specified conditions.
In practice we are more concerned about the
rate of heat tranfer (heat tranfer per unit time)
than the amount of heat transfer.

Heat can be transferred in three different ways:

conduction, convection, and radiation.
All modes of heat transfer require the
existence of a temperature difference, and all
modes of heat transfer are from the hightemperature medium to a lower temperature
one.

Conduction refers to the transport of energy in a

medium due to a temperature gradient.
In contrast, the convection refers to heat transfer
that occurs between a surface and a fluid (at rest or
in motion) when they are at different temperatures.

Thermal radiation refers to

the heat transfer that occurs
between two surfaces at
different temperatures. It
results from the energy
emitted by any surface in
the form of electromagnetic
waves.

The physical mechanism of conduction is most

easily explained by considering a gas. Consider
a gas in which a temperature gradient exists,
and assume that there is no bulk, or
macroscopic, motion. The gas may occupy the
space between two surfaces that are maintained
at different temperatures, as shown.

conduction heat transfer with diffusion of energy due to molecular

activity

The hypothetical plane at x0 is constantly

being crossed by molecules from above and
below due to their random motion.
However, molecules from above are associated
with a higher temperature than those from
below, in which case there must be a net
transfer of energy in the positive x-direction.
Collisions between molecules enhance this
energy transfer. We may speak of the net
transfer of energy by random molecular motion
as a diffusion of energy.

Temperature is a measure of the kinetic

energies of the molecules.

In a liquid or gas, the kinetic energy of the

molecules is due to the random motion of the
molecules as well as the vibrational and
rotational motions.

When two molecules possessing different kinetic

energies collide, part of the kinetic energy of
the more energetic (higher temperature)
molecule is transferred to the less energetic
(lower temperature) particle,

In solids, heat conduction is due to two effects:

the lattice vibrational waves induced by the
vibrational motions of the molecules positioned
at relatively fixed position in a periodic manner
called a lattice, and the energy transported via
the free flow of electrons in the solid.

The thermal conductivity of a solid is obtained by

adding the lattice and the electronic components.
The thermal conductivity of pure metals is
primarily due to the electronic component,
whereas the thermal conductivity of nonmetals is
primarily due to the lattice component.

The lattice component of thermal conductivity

strongly depends on the way the molecules are
arranged.
For example, the thermal conductivity of diamond,
which is a highly ordered crystalline solid, is much
higher than the thermal conductivities of pure
metals, as can be seen from Table 1-1.

Conduction can take place

in solids, liquids, or gases.

In gases and liquids,

conduction is due to the
collisions of the molecules
during their random motion.

A cold canned drink in a

warm room eventually
warms up to the room
temperature as a result of
heat transfer from the room
to the drink through the
aluminum can by
conduction

Examples of conduction heat transfer are

legion.
The exposed end of a metal spoon suddenly
immersed in a cup of hot coffee is
eventually warmed due to the conduction of
energy through the spoon.
On a winter day, there is significant energy
loss from a heated room to the outside air.
This loss is principally due to conduction
heat transfer through the wall that
separates the room air from the outside air.

Heat transfer processes can be quantified in

terms of appropriate rate equations. These
equations may be used to compute the amount
of energy being transferred per unit time. For
heat conduction, the rate equation is known as
Fourier.s law.
For the one-dimensional plane wall shown in
Figure 1, having a temperature distribution
T(x), the rate equation is expressed as
FIGURE 1. One-dimensional heat transfer by
conduction
(diffusion of energy).

The heat flux qx(W/m2) is the heat transfer

rate in the x-direction per unit area
perpendicular to the direction of transfer, and
it is proportional to the temperature gradient,
dT/dx, in this direction.
The parameter k is a transport property known
as the thermal conductivity (W/m . K) and is a
characteristic of the wall material. The minus
sign is a consequence
of the fact that heat is transferred in the
direction of decreasing temperature.

Materials such as copper and silver,

which are good electric conductors, are
also good heat conductors, and therefore
have high kt values.
Materials such as rubber, wood, and
styrofoam are poor conductors of heat,
and therefore have low kt values.
Heat Transfer depends on the thermal
conductivity of the material

Under the steady-state conditions shown in

Figure 1, where the temperature distribution is
linear,
the temperature gradient may be expressed as
and the heat flux is then
or
Note that this equation provides a heat flux ,
that is, the rate of heat transfer per unit area.
The heat rate by conduction, qx (W), through a
plane wall of area A is then the product of the
flux and the area, q = q A.

EXAMPLE 1
The wall of an industrial furnace is constructed from 0.15-mthick fireclay brick having a thermal conductivity of 1.7 W/m
K. Measurements made during steady-state operation reveal
temperatures of 1400 and 1150 K at the inner and outer
surfaces, respectively. What is the rate of heat loss through a
wall that is 0.5 m 1.2 m on a side?
SOLUTION
Known: Steady-state conditions with prescribed wall
thickness, area, thermal conductivity, and surface
temperatures.
Find: Wall heat loss.

Assumptions:
1. Steady-state conditions.
2. One-dimensional conduction through the wall.
3. Constant thermal conductivity.
Analysis: Since heat transfer through the wall is by
conduction, the heat flux may be determined from
Fouriers law. Using Equation 1.2, we have
The heat flux represents the rate of heat transfer
through a section of unit area, and it is uniform
(invariant) across the surface of the wall. The heat loss
through the wall of area
A = H x W is then
Comments: Note the direction of heat flow and the
distinction between heat flux and heat rate.

EXAMPLE 2
The Cost of Heat Loss through a Roof
The roof of an electrically heated home is 6 m
long, 8m wide, and 0.25 m thick, and is made of
a flat layer of concrete whose thermal
conductivity is k 0.8 W/m C . The temperatures
of the inner and the outer surfaces of the roof
one night are measured to be 25C and 0C,
respectively, for a period of 10 hours.
Determine:
(a) the rate of heat loss through the roof that
night and
(b) the cost of that heat loss to the home owner
if the cost of electricity is $0.2/kWh.

0oC
25o
C

Solution:
(a) Noting that heat transfer through the roof is by
conduction and the area of the roof is:
A= 6 m8 m=48 m2.
The steady rate of heat transfer through the roof is
determined to be
q=kA(T1-T2)/L= (0.8)(48 )(25-0)/0.25= 3840 W= 3.84 kW
(b) The amount of heat lost through the roof during a 10hour period and its cost are determined from
q = qDt =(3.84 kW)(10 h) = 38.4 kWh
Cost/day = (Amount of energy)(Unit cost of energy)
= (38.4 kWh)($0.2/kWh) =$7.68
Cost/month = (cost/day)(30day/month)=
$7.6830=$230.4

Convection is the mode of energy transfer

between a solid surface and the adjacent liquid or
gas that is in motion, and it involves the combined
effects of conduction and fluid motion.

The faster the fluid motion, the greater the

convection heat transfer. In the absence of any
bulk fluid motion, heat transfer between a solid
surface and the adjacent fluid is by pure
conduction.

The presence of bulk motion of the fluid enhances

the heat transfer between the solid surface and
the fluid, but it also complicates the determination
of heat transfer rates.

Consider the cooling of a hot block by blowing of

cool air over its top surface. Energy is first
transferred to the air layer adjacent to the surface
of the block by conduction.

This energy is then carried away from the surface

by convection; that is, by the combined effects of
conduction within the air and the motion of the
air, which removes the heated air near the surface
and replaces it by the cooler air.

Convection is called forced convection if the

fluid is forced to flow in a tube or over a surface
by external means such as a fan, pump, or the
wind.

In contrast, convection is called free

(or natural) convection if the fluid
motion is caused by buoyancy forces
induced by density differences due to
the variation of temperature in the
fluid.

For example, in the absence of a fan,

heat transfer from the surface of the
hot egg will be by natural convection
since any motion in the air in this case
will be due to the rise of the warmer
(and thus lighter) air near the surface
and the fall of the cooler (and thus
heavier) air to fill its place.

The cooling of a boiled egg by forced and natural

convection.

Regardless of the nature of the convection

heat transfer process, the appropriate rate
equation is of the form

where h is the convection heat transfer coefficient,

q is the convective heat flux (W/m2)
A is the surface area through which heat transfer
takes place,
Ts is the surface temperature, and
T is bulk fluid temperature away from the surface.
The convection heat transfer coefficient h is not a property
of the fluid. It is an experimentally determined parameter
whose value depends on all the variables that influence
convection such as:
the surface geometry, the nature of fluid motion, the

Unlike conduction and convection, heat transfer by

radiation can occur between two bodies, even when
they are separated by a medium colder than both of
them.

Radiation is the energy emitted by matter in

the form of electromagnetic waves as a result
of the changes in the electronic
configurations of the atoms or molecules.

Unlike conduction and convection, the

transfer of energy by radiation does not
require the presence of an intervening
medium. In fact, energy transfer by radiation
is fastest (at the speed of light) in a vacuum.
This is exactly how the energy of the sun
reaches the earth.

In heat transfer studies, we are interested in

thermal radiation, which is the form of
radiation emitted by bodies because of their
temperature.

It differs from other forms of electromagnetic

radiation such as X-rays, gamma rays,
microwaves, radio waves, and television waves
that are not related to temperature.

All bodies at a temperature above absolute

zero emit thermal radiation.

Radiation is a volumetric phenomenon, and all

solids, liquids, and gases emit, absorb, or
transmit radiation of varying degrees.

However, radiation is usually considered to be

a surface phenomenon for solids that are
opaque to thermal radiation such as metals,
wood, and rocks since the radiation emitted
by the interior regions of such material can
never reach the surface, and the radiation
incident on such bodies is usually absorbed
within a few microns from the surface.

Radiation that is emitted by the surface originates from

the thermal energy of matter bounded by the surface,
and the rate at which energy is released per unit area
(W/m2) is termed the surface emissive power, E.
The maximum rate of radiation that can be emitted
from a surface at an absolute temperature Ts is given by
the StefanBoltzmann law as

where A is the surface area and = 5.67 * 10-8 W/m2

K4 is the StefanBoltzmann constant.
The idealized surface that emits radiation at this
maximum rate is called a blackbody, and the radiation
emitted by a blackbody is called blackbody radiation.

The heat flux emitted by a real surface is less

than that of a blackbody at the same temperature
and is given by
where is a radiative property of the surface
termed the emissivity. With values in the
range 0 1, this property provides a measure
of
how efficiently a surface emits energy relative to
a
blackbody for which = 1.