Unit 1 Chemistry

Teacher: Ms. Wilson

 Cite evidence that led to modifications

to Daltons atomic theory
Discuss the process of theoretical
change with respect to Daltons atomic
theory
Describe the structure of the atom
Define the following terms:
Mass number
Isotopes
Relative atomic and isotopic masses based
on the C scale

Specific Objectives

 The Atomic Theory

Daltons Theory
Modifications of Daltons Theory

The structure of the Atom

Atomic Particles: protons, neutrons and
electrons

Mass Relationships of Atoms

Atomic number, mass number, isotopes,
relative atomic and isotopic masses based
on the C scale.

Lesson Outline

 Chemistry is concerned with the

composition and reactions of
matter
Matter exists in three states:
solid, liquid and gas
Pure matter may be grouped into
compounds and elements
Elements are the simplest form they cannot be chemically broken
down (e.g. Hydrogen, Magnesium,
Chlorine, Carbon)
..but what are these elements
made of ?
Greek philosophers proposed that
they are made of tiny indivisible
particles called atoms.

The Atomic Theory

 The main claims of the Theory

are:
Elements are made up of tiny
particles called atoms, which cannot
be created or destroyed or split
Atoms of the same element have the
same mass, while atoms of different
elements have different masses
Atoms of the same element are
chemically alike and atoms of
different elements are chemically
different. Elements combine
chemically in whole number ratios to
form new substances (compounds)
Atoms are not changed during
chemical reactions

This theory does not explain

what the atom is made up of

Daltons
Atomic
Theory

John Dalton (1766-1844)

 In the modern theory, atoms have a

detailed structure, which is altered
temporarily during chemical change.
Atoms can be change from one
element to another but not by
chemical reactions.
Atoms of the same element are not
exactly alike, they can and do have
different masses. However their
chemical properties are the same.

The
Modifications
of Daltons
Theory

 Several scientists conducted

experiments that led to what is known
today as the structure of the atom
The electron was the first sub-atomic
particle discovered (by J.J Thomson)
This led to The Thomson Model
of the atom which describes the
atom as a positive sphere in
which negative electrons are
embedded
The nucleus was discovered next and
Rutherfords model of the atom was
proposed

Structure of the
Atom

 This experiment involved the use of a cathode ray tube

This is a glass tube from which the air has been removed and
with two pieces of metals called electrodes attached
An electric current flows through the tube when a sufficient
voltage is applied
The current flow is from the cathode (negatively
Thomsons
charged) to the
anode (positively charged)
If the tube is not fully evacuated and stillExperiment
contains small amounts
of air or other gases, the current flow is visible as a glow called a
cathode ray
This beam is produced at the negative electrode and is deflected
towards the positive electrode
The beam can also be deflected by a magnet or an electrically
charged plate
Thomson proposed that the cathode ray must consist of tiny
negatively charged particle called electrons
Being emitted from different kinds of electrodes, elements must
contain electrons

Thomsons
Cathode Ray
Tube
Experiment

http://online.cctt.org.physicslab/content/phy2HON/lessonnotes/modern/electronbeams.asp

 Discovered by English scientist J. J.

Thompson
These are negatively charged particles
They move about the nucleus with
different energies
Mass: 9.110 x 10-28 g
Radius: 2.818 x 10-13 cm

Electrons

 Experiment conducted by English

physicist Ernest Rutherford
In an evacuate tube, a beam of alpha
particles were directed at a thin gold
sheet
Most of the particles passed
through the sheet
A few were slightly deflected
Very few were greatly deflected (1
in 20,000)
It was assumed that the mass and
positive charge must be
concentrated in a tiny core of the
atom called the nucleus.
The alpha particles bounced back if they
approached a positively charged nucleus
head on
Those that were slightly deflected
passed close to the nucleus
Most particles passed straight through
the gold foil, which implied that the
atom consists of a lot of space

Evidence
supporting the
presence of a
nucleus

Rutherfords
Experiment

www.sol.sci.uop.edu/~jfalward/physics17/chapter13/chapter113.html

 The nucleus is very small and dense

with a diameter of 10-12 cm
1 Angstrom () = 10-8 cm
Therefore diameter of the nucleus is
10-4
Diameter of the atom is 1-5
Except for the hydrogen atom, the
nucleus of every atom consists of two
types of particles: protons and
neutrons

Protons
Positively charged
Mass: 1.673 x 10-24 g
The positive charge is equal in
magnitude to the negative
charge on the electron
In each atom # of protons = # of
electrons
As a result the atom is neutral

The Nucleus

Neutrons
Discovered by English scientist James
C. Chadwick in 1934
Neutral particles (no electric charge)
Mass: 1.6375 x 10-24 g
Henry Mosely (1913) explored the
nucleus of atoms. He found out that
the number of positive charge on the
nucleus is equal to the atoms
numbered position in the periodic
table which was given the symbol Z.

The Nucleus

 Z is known as the atomic number. It is the most important feature an elements

individuality. Z represents:
The no. of protons in the nucleus
The no. of electrons in the neutral atom
The order in which the element appears in the periodic table.

Rutherfords model
of the atom

a little bit of history

1808

1897

1924
Solid Sphere Model or
Billiard Ball Model
proposed by John Dalton

1909

Planetary Model or
Nuclear Model
proposed by E. Rutherford

Plum Pudding Model or

Raisin Bun Model
proposed by J.J. Thomson

1913

Bohr Model or
Orbit Model
proposed by Neils Bohr

Electron Cloud Model or

Quantum Mechanical Model
proposed by Louis de Broglie
& Erwin Schrodinger

Comparison of Subatomic Particles

Particle

Mass/g

Mass/amu

Charge/C

Charge/e

Electron

9.109 x 10-28

5.486 x 10-4

-1.602 x 10-19

-1

Proton

1.673 x 10-24

1.007

+1.602 x 10-19

+1

Neutron

1.675 x 10-24

1.009

Atomic Number (Z)

The number of protons
present in the nucleus
The number of electrons
around the nucleus

Mass number (A)

The sum of the number of
protons (Z) and neutrons
(N) present in the nucleus
A = Z + N

Atomic and Mass

Number

 All the atoms of a given element

have the same atomic number
Isotopes are atoms of the same
element that have different
numbers of neutrons and
therefore different mass numbers
For example, Hydrogen has three
isotopes
Isotopes behave almost identical
in their chemical reactions, the
number of neutrons present has
very little effect on the atoms
chemical property
The chemical property is
determined by the number of
electrons present

Isotopes

Isotopes of
Hydrogen

http:/encarta.msn.com/media_461531710_-1_1/Hydrogen_Isotopes.html

 The atomic mass (atomic weight) of

an element is the weighted average
mass in atomic mass units (amu) of an
elements naturally occurring isotopes
The mass of an atom is extremely
small in grams and so is measured in
atomic mass units (amu) instead

1 amu = 1/12 mass of

carbon-12 = 1.66054 x 10-24
g

Atomic Weight

 How many protons, neutrons and

electrons are present in this isotope of
uranium 23592U?
Copper metal has two naturally
occurring isotopes copper-63 (69.17%,
isotopic mass 62.94 amu) and copper65 (30.83%, isotopic mass 64.93 amu).
Calculate the atomic weight of copper.
Solution:

(62.94 69.17/100) + (64.93

30.83/100) = 63.55amu

Exercise

 Atomic masses are determined by

mass spectrometry (i.e. using a mass
spectrometer)
There are 4 main stages in the
process:
Ionisation - after a vapourised sample is put
into the mass spectrometer, it is ionised electrons are removed - usually one electron is
removed but sometimes two. The positively
charged species then go into the accelerating
chamber.
Acceleration - the ions are subjected to an
electric field which accelerates them

The Mass
Spectrometer

 Deflection - the heavy ions

(ones with the larger atomic
mass) are deflected less than
the lighter ions. Therefore the
ions are separated according
to their atomic masses and
travel a different path in the
mass spectrometer (shown by
the dotted lines in the
diagram below).
Detection - only ions of a
certain mass actually end up
at this point (the ones taking
the green path). To make
sure that all of the ions are
detected, you have to vary
the strength of the magnetic
field. The detector records
each species as a peak on a
trace.

The Mass
Spectrometer

The Mass
Spectrometer

http://www.chemguide.co.uk/analysis/masspec/howitworks.html

 The results are plotted on a chart

showing the percentage
abundance of the isotopes and
their mass/charge ratio. If we
assume that the charge on each
ion is +1 then the mass/charge
ratio is the same as the atomic
mass of the ion. The mass
spectrum below is for Boron.

The Mass
Spectrometer

The number of peaks tells you

how many isotopes there are in this case 2.

The atomic mass of each is

read from the x-axis - in this
case one isotope has mass of
10 and the other a mass of 11.
The height of each peak tells
you its percentage abundance
- this means that out of 100
atoms of Boron there will be
81.3 atoms of Boron10 and
18.7 atoms of Boron11.

To work out the average

isotopic mass of Boron:
(10 81.3/100) + (11
18.7/100) = 10.18

The Mass
Spectrometer

Early Pioneers in Radioactivity

Rutherford:

Roentgen:

Discoverer Alpha
and Beta rays
1897

Discoverer of Xrays 1895

The Curies:
Discoverers of
Radium and
Polonium 19001908

Becquerel:
Discoverer of
Radioactivity
1896
Science Park HS -- Honors Chemistry

 Radioactivity refers to the particles

which are emitted from nuclei as a
result of nuclear instability.

Radioactivity

 Bacquerel (1886) discovered that

uranium salts emit some active rays
called radioactive rays and the
property itself was known as
radioactivity. Potassium uranyl
sulphate was the first compound in
which radioactivity was observed.
Madame Curie et al. (1898) found that
thorium and radium are also
radioactive substances.

Radioactivit
y

 Rutherford (1899) proved that there

are two types of radiation i.e.+ andrays carrying (+) ve and (-) ve charge
respectively. Willard (1900) discovered
the third type of radiation, i.e.gammarays which is neutral.

 Types of radiation include:

Alpha particles, beta particles, gamma
rays, X-rays and neutron radiation
Radiation and radioactivity have three
main characteristics:

1.Distance
2. Penetrating power
3.Half-life: Radioactivity
decays over time.

Types and
Characteristics of
Radiation

1.Distance: The
greater the
distance from a
radioactive
material, the
weaker radiation
becomes.

2. Penetrating
power: Radiation
has the power to
pass through
materials.

3.Half-life:
Radioactivity
decays over time.

Neutron to Proton
Ratio