CARBOHYDRATES

CARBOHYDRATES
Excellent source of energy
Found primarily in plants
Organic compounds which contain
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
Ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is 2:1
as in water, hence the term
carbohydrates

Photosynthesis

A Wheat Plant
and a Single
Kernel

Classification according to
complexity of molecular
structure

Simple

Monosaccharides
Disaccharides

Complex
Polysaccharides

Monosaccharides
Glucose

- Grape sugar, Dextrose, blood sugar

Fructose - Levulose, Fruit sugar, is the sweetest of the
sugars
Galactose- rarely occurs as a single sugar, part of the

disaccharide lactose
Sugar

alcohols

Mannitol
Sorbitol

Pentoses

- (Ribose and Ribulose)

Disaccharides
Sucrose

(glucose + fructose) cane/table/beet sugar

Maltose

(glucose + glucose) - malt sugar

Lactose

(glucose + galactose) - milk sugar

POLYSACCHARIDES

Digestible
Starch - plant starch
Dextrin
Glycogen - animal starch
Partially Digestible
Galactogens
Inulin
Mannosans
Pentosans
Indigestible - Dietary Fiber
Soluble - pectin, mucilage, guar gum
Insoluble Cellulose, Hemicellulose,

Monosaccharides to
Disaccharides

Glucose to Polysaccharides

Cellulose

FUNCTIONS
Chief

source of energy

1 gm. = 4 calories
there are only 10 gms of glucose circulating in

blood or 70-120 mg/100 ml of blood

Functions
Cheap

and main energy food

Protein sparer
Regulator of Fat Metabolism
Sole energy source for the brain and nerve
tissues
Storage form of energy as glycogen
Indigestible CHOs regulate intestinal
peristalsis and provide bulk

Special Functions of Specific CHOs

Galactose

& glucose in the cerebrosides are

constituents of brain tissues
Lactose has a special function in infant feeding.
It stays longer in the intestines encouraging the
growth of beneficial bacteria thus favoring
calcium absorption & synthesis of niacin
Glucoronic acid (a metabolite of glucose) has a
detoxifying effect in the liver

Special Functions of Specific CHOs

Glycosides

( monosaccharide attached to a
noncarbohydrate residue) are important in
drug therapy
Inulin is used to test renal function -to test
GFR
Ribose and deoxyribose which are pentoses
are important constituents of nucleic acids
(RNA & DNA)

Digestion and Absorption

Mouth:
Mechanical digestion breaks food into smaller
pieces. Amylase begins chemical digestion.

Stomach

Starch---> amylase ---> dextrin + maltose

Stomach acids and enzymes halt amylase action

Small Intestines

Intestinal enzymes & pancreatic amylase continue

breakdown of CHOs. Brush border cells secrete
specific enzymes for dissacharide hydrolysis:
Maltose --> maltase ---> glucose +glucose
Sucrose ---> sucrase ---> fructose + glucose
Lactose ---> lactase ----> galactose + glucose
The monosaccharides are then absorbed, enter the
villi then transported via the portal circulation to
liver.

Large Intestines:

Most fibers continues thru the digestive tract to the

large intestines. Here bacteria digests some; the
rests passes out of the body.

Summary of CHO DIGESTION &

METABOLISM
Site

Enzyme
process
Mouth Salivary
amylase
Small
Pancreatic
intestines amylase
maltase
sucrase
lactase

Substance

Products

starch

Dextrin + maltose

starch

Dextrin + maltose

maltose
sucrose
lactose

Glucose + glucose
Glucose + fructose
Glucose + galactose

Summary of CHO DIGESTION,

ABSORPTION & METABOLISM
Liver

Cell

Absorption

Simple
sugars

Liver enzyme
systems
Glycogenesis

Fructose +
galactose
Glucose

Glucose

Glycogenolysis

Glycogen

Glucose

Lipogenesis

Glucose

Fats

Anabolism

Glucose

Glycogen

Krebs cycle

Glucose

Energy, H20,
C02

Glycogen

How Food
Carbohydrate
Becomes Body
Glucose
(Slide 1 of 4)
1. Fiber, starch, monosaccharides, and disaccharides
enter the small intestine. (some of
the starch is partially broken down
by an enzyme from the salivary
glands before it reaches the small
intestine.)

(See next slide)

How Food
Carbohydrate
Becomes Body
Glucose
(Slide 2 of 4)

(See next slide)

Key
Glucose
Fructose
Galactose

Fiber
Starch

2. An enzyme from the pancreas

digests the starch to
disaccharides.
3. Enzymes on surface of
intestinal wall cells split
disaccharides to
monosaccharides.
4. Monosaccharides enter
capillary, then are delivered to
liver via the portal vein.

How Carbohydrate Becomes Body Glucose

(Slide 3 of 4)
5. Liver converts
galactose and
fructose to glucose.

How Carbohydrate
Becomes Body
Glucose
(Slide 4 of 4)
5. Fiber travels unchanged
to the colon.

Metabolism
Primary aspect is maintenance of blood glucose to a

level between 70-120 mg./dl.

Glycogenesis:
process of converting glucose to glycogen
glycogen is then stored in liver & muscles

Glycogenolysis:
process of converting glycogen back to glucose

Gluconeogenesis:
process of producing glucose from fat & protein

Blood glucose regulation

Controlled by a sophisticated hormonal system:

Insulin

lowers glucose level by enhancing the

conversion of excess glucose to glycogen

Glucagon

stimulates conversion of liver glycogen to

glucose
Somatostatin

inhibits function of insulin and glucagon

Blood glucose regulation

Epinephrine

enhances fast conversion of liver glycogen to glucose

Steroid

hormones -

function against insulin and promote glucose formation

from protein
Growth

hormone & ACTH -

function as insulin inhibitors

Thyroxine

affects blood glucose levels by enhancing intestinal

absorption of glucose and releasing epinephrine

Factors that lower blood sugar level

prolonged

undernutrition
increased exercise
intestinal malabsorption of glucose( poor
absorption of glucose)
liver damage
kidney malfunction
hormonal deficiencies
adrenal insufficiency
insulin increase
hypothyroidism
anterior pituitary deficiency

Factors that increase blood sugar

level
Excessive

CHO intake
increased absorption of glucose
reduced exercise
liver disorders
toxemias
hormonal disorders
extreme emotions

FACTORS THAT MAINTAIN BLOOD

SUGAR LEVELS
Glycogenesis

- Glycogenolysis (liver &

muscles)
Lipogenesis - Gluconeogenesis
Glucose excretion
Utilization of CHO by other tissues

FOOD SOURCES
Sugars
Cereals
Starchy

vegetables

Rice
Grains
Oats
Dried
Fruits

legumes

RDA:
50

-60 % 0f total caloric requirements

Dietary Planning
Supply CHO foods that are:
Protective foods

those CHO foods that also provide CHON,

vitamins and minerals as calories

examples - milk, whole grains, enriched
cereals, fruits & dried legumes
Empty

calorie foods

are pure CHO foods supplying energy but no

CHON, vitamin & mineral

examples - soft drinks, plain candies, refined
sugars

Health Effects:
If

hormone system cannot regulate glucose within

normal levels:
Hypoglycemia
Diabetes Mellitus

Risk

factors if not taking sufficient amounts of

fiber:
Obesity
Constipation
Diverticular disease
Colon cancer

Fiber in the Diet

Diverticulosis
Diverticula

Colon

The Obesity--Diabetes Cycle.

Diabetes Types 1 and 2 Compared

Type 1 Diabetes

Type 2 Diabetes

Age of Onset
Body cells
Body fatness
Insulin shots required
Hypoglycemic agents
effective
Natural insulin

Childhood or mid-life
Responsive to insulin action
Generally low to average
Yes
No

Adulthood
Resistant to insulin action
Generally high
Possibly
Yes

Pancreas makes too little or none

Pancreatic function

Insulin-producing cells impaired

or nonfunctional
Relatively severe, many are
apparent on diagnosis

Pancreas makes enough or

too much
Insulin producing cells
normal
Relatively mild; few or one
may be present on diagnosis.

Severity of symptoms

GOOD DAY
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