Antenna & Wave propogation

Outline..
Todays session includes.

Basics of Antenna

Principal of EM Radiation

A Moving Electric Field Creates a Magnetic (H)

field
A Moving Magnetic Field Creates an Electric (E)
field

Key Points
1. Principals of EM Radiation
2. Introduction to Propagation & Antennas
3. Antenna Characterization

An AC current i(t), flowing in a wire produces an EM field

Assume i(t) applied at A with length l = /2
EM wave will travel along the wire until it reaches the B
B is a point of high impedence wave reflects toward A and is reflected
back again
resistance gradually dissipates the energy of the wave
wave is reinforced at A
results in continuous oscillations of energy along the wire and a high
voltage at the A end of the wire.

l = /2

c 3 108m/s
l = /2: wave will complete one cycle from A to B and back to A
= distance a wave travels during 1 cycle
f = c/ = c/2l
5

Dipole antenna: 2 wires each with length l = /4

attach ends to terminals of a high frequency AC generator
at time t, the generators right side = + and the left side =

i(t)

B
l = /4

current distribution at time t

------------------------------------------------------------------------

++++
+++++++
+++++++++++
+++++++++++++++
+++++++++++++++

voltage distribution at time t

electrons flow away from the terminal and towards the + terminal
most current flows in the center and none flows at the ends
i(t) at any point will vary directly with v(t)
cycle after electrons have begun to flow max number of electrons will be at A and min
number at B
vmax(t) is developed
i(t) = 0
6

Standing Wave
Center of the antenna is at a low impedance: v(t) 0,
imax(t)
Ends of antenna are at high impedence: i(t) 0, vmax(t)
Maximum movement of electrons is in the center of the
antenna at all
times
Resonance condition in the antenna
Waves travel back and forth reinforcin
Maximum EM waves are transmitted into at
maximum radiation

EM patterns on Dipole Antenna:

sinusoidal distribution of charge exists on the antenna
that reverses
polarity every cycle
sinusoidal variation in charge magnitude lags the
sinusoidal variation in
current by cycle.
Electric field E and magnetic field H 90 out of phase
with each other
fields add and produce a single EM field
total energy in the radiated wave is constant, except for
some absorption
as the wave advances, the energy density decreases 8

POLARIZATION
EM field is composed of electric & magnetic lines of
force that are orthogonal to each other
E determines the direction of polarization of the wave
Vertical polarization: electric force lines lie in a vertical
direction
Horizontal polarization : electric force lines lie in a
horizontal direction
Circular polarization: electric force lines rotate 360
every cycle
9

An antenna extracts maximum energy from a

passing EM wave when it is oriented in the same
direction as E
Use vertical antenna for the efficient reception
of vertically polarized
waves
Use horizontal antenna for the reception of
horizontally polarized waves
if E rotates as the wave travels through space
wave has. horizontal and vertical components

10

Ground wave transmissions missions at lower frequencies

use vertical polarization
Horizontal polarization E force lines are parallel to and
touch the earth.
Earth acts as a fairly good conductor at low frequencies.

11

Introduction to Antennas and Propagation

Types of antennas
simple antennas: dipole, long wire
complex antennas: additional components to
shape radiated field
provide high gain for long distances or weak signal
reception
size frequency of operation
combinations of identical antennas
phased arrays electrically shape and steer antenna
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Antenna
Transmit antenna: radiate maximum energy into
surroundings
Receive antenna: capture maximum energy from
surrounding
radiating transmission line is technically an
antenna
good transmission line = poor antenna

13

Major Difference Between Antennas And

Transmission Lines
Transmission line uses conductor to carry voltage & current
Radio signal travels through air (insulator)
Antennas are transducers
Convert voltage & current into electric & magnetic field
Bridges transmission line & air
Similar to speaker/microphone with acoustic energy

14

Transmission Line
voltage & current variations produce EM field around
conductor
EM field expands & contracts at same frequency as
variations
EM field contractions return energy to the source
(conductor)
Nearly all the energy in the transmission line remains in
the system

15

Antenna
Designed to Prevent most of the Energy from returning
to Conductor
Specific Dimensions & EM wavelengths cause field to
radiate several before the Cycle Reversal
-Cycle Reversal - Field Collapses Energy returns to
Conductor
- Produces 3-Dimensional EM field
- Electric Field Magnetic Field
-Wave Energy Propagation Electric Field &
-Magnetic Field

16

Antenna Performance depends heavily on

Channel Characteristics: obstacles, distances
temperature,
Signal Frequency
Antenna Dimensions

17

Transmit & Receive Antenna

Transmit & Receive antennas
Theoretically are the same (e.g. radiation fields,
antenna gain)
Practical implementation issue:
Transmit antenna handles high power signal (W-MW)
large conductors & high power connectors.

Receive antenna handles low power signal (mW-uW)

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Propagation Modes five types

(1)

Ground or Surface wave: follow earths contour

affected by natural and man-made terrain
salt water forms low loss path
several hundred mile range
2-3 MHz signal
htx
Wave
Line of Sight (LOS) wave
Ground Diffraction allows for greater distance
Approximate Maximum Distance, D in miles is
D=
2htx 2hrx

(2) Space

hrx

(antenna height in ft)

No Strict Signal Frequency Limitations

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Sky Waves
Reflected

off ionosphere (20-250 miles high)

large ranges possible with single hop or multi-hop
transmit angle affects distance, coverage, refracted energy
refracted
wave
ionosphere
transmitted
wave

reflected
wave
skip distance

20

Ionosphere
is a layer of partially ionized gasses below troposphere
- ionization caused by ultra-violet radiation from the sun
- affected by: available sunlight, season, weather, terrain
- free ions & electrons reflect radiated energy
consists of several ionized layers with varying ion density
- each layer has a central region of dense ionization
Layer
D
E
F1
F2

altitude
(miles)

Frequency Availability
Range
20-25
several MHz day only
55-90
20MHz
day, partially
at night
90-140
30MHz
24 hours
200-250
30MHz
24 hours

F1 & F2 separate during daylight, merge at night

21

Usable Frequency and Angles

Critical Frequency: frequency that wont reflect vertical transmission
- critical frequency is relative to each layer of ionosphere
- as frequency increases eventually signal will not reflect
Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF): highest frequency useful for
reflected transmissions
- absorption by ionosphere decreases at higher frequencies
- absorption of signal energy = signal loss
- best results when MUF is used
Frequency Trade-Off
high frequency signals eventually will not reflect back to ground
lower frequency signals are attenuated more in the ionosphere
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Critical Angle
Angle of radiation: transmitted energy relative to surface tangent
- Smaller angle requires less ionospheric refraction to return to earth
- too large an angle results in no reflection
- 3o-60o are common angles
Critical angle: maximum angle of radiation that will reflect energy
to earth
Determination of minimum skip distance:
- critical angle - small critical angle long skip distance
- height of ionosphere - higher layers give longer skip distances
for a fixed angle
multipath: signal takes different paths to the destination
ionosphere
angle of radiation
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(4) Satellite

Waves

Designed to pass through ionosphere into space

uplink (ground to space)
down link (space to ground)
LOS link
Frequencies >> critical frequency
penetrates ionosphere without reflection
high frequencies provide bandwidth
Geosynchronous orbit 23k miles (synchronized with earths orbit)
long distances result in high path loss
EM energy disperses over distances
intensely focused beam improves efficiency
24

Free Space Path Loss equation used to determine signal levels

over distance
2
Pt 4fd

Pr c

4fd
20 log10

(dB)

G = Antenna gain: projection of energy in specific direction

can magnify transmit power
increase effective signal level at receiver

Total loss = Gt + Gr path loss (dB)

25

(5)

Radar: requires

High gain antenna

Sensitive low noise receiver
Requires reflected signal from object distances are doubled
Only small fraction of transmitted signal reflects back

26

Antenna Characterization
Antennas generate EM field pattern
Not always possible to model mathematically
Difficult to account for obstacles
Antennas are studied in EM isolated rooms to extract key
performance characteristics
Antenna design & relative signal intensity determines relative field
pattern
Absolute value of signal intensity varies for given antenna design
- at the transmitter this is related to power applied at transmitter
- at the receiver this is related to power in surrounding space
27

Polar Plot of relative signal strength of radiated field

shows how field strength is shaped
generally 0o aligned with major physical axis of antenna
most plots are relative scale (dB)
- maximum signal strength location is 0 dB reference
- closer to center represents weaker signals
90

forward gain = 10dB

backward gain = 7dB

0o

180o

270o

+10dB
+7dB
+ 4dB
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Radiated field shaping lens & visible light

application determines required direction & focus of signal
antenna characteristics
(i) radiation field pattern
(ii) gain
(iii) lobes, beamwidth, nulls
(iv) directivity
(i) Antenna

field pattern = general shape of signal intensity in far-field

Far-field measurements measured many wavelengths away from

antenna
Near-field measurement involves complex interactions of decaying
electrical and magnetic fields - many details of antenna construction
29

Measuring Antenna Field Pattern

field strength meter used to measure field pattern
Indicates amplitude of received signal
Calibrated to receiving antenna
Relationship between meter and receive antenna known
measured strength in uV/meter
received power is in uW/meter
Directly indicates EM field strength

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Determination of overall Antenna Field Pattern

form Radiation Polar Plot Pattern
use nominal field strength value (e.g. 100uV/m)
measure points for 360o around antenna
record distance & angle from antenna
connect points of equal field strength

practically
distance between meter & antenna kept constant
90
antenna is rotated
plot of field strength versus angle is made
o

0o

180o

100 uV/m
270o

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Why Shape the Antenna Field Pattern ?

Transmit antennas: produce higher effective power in direction of
intended receiver
Receive antennas: concentrate energy collecting ability in
direction of transmitter
- reduced noise levels - receiver only picks up intended signal
Avoid unwanted receivers (multiple access interference = MAI):
- security
- multi-access systems
locate target direction & distance e.g. radar
Not always necessary to shape field pattern, standard broadcast is
often omnidirectional - 360o
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(ii

) Antenna Gain

Gain is Measured Specific to a Reference Antenna

isotropic antenna often used - gain over isotropic
- isotropic antenna radiates power ideally in all directions
- gain measured in dBi
- Test antennas field strength relative to reference isotropic antenna
- at same power, distance, and angle
- isotropic antenna cannot be practically realized
wave dipole often used as reference antenna
- easy to build
- simple field pattern
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Antenna Gain Amplifier Gain

Antenna power output = power input transmission line loss
Antenna shapes radiated field pattern
power measured at a point is greater/less than that using
reference antenna
total power output doesnt increase
power output in given direction increases/decreases relative to
reference antenna
e.g.

a lamp is similar to an isotropic antenna

a lens is similar to a directional antenna
- provides a gain/loss of visible light in a specific
direction
- doesnt change actual power radiated by lamp
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Transmit antenna with 6dB gain in specific direction over

isotropic
antenna 4 transmit power in that direction

Receive antenna with 3dB gain is some direction receives 2 as

much power than reference antenna
Antenna Gain
often a cost effective means to
(i) increase effective transmit power
(ii) effectively improve receiver sensitivity
may be only technically viable means
more power may not be available (batteries)
front end noise determines maximum receiver sensitivity
Rotational Antennas can vary direction of antenna gain
Directional Antennas focus antenna gain in primary direction
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(iii) Beamwidth, Lobes & Nulls

Lobe: area of high signal strength
- main lobe
- secondary lobes
Nulls: area of very low signal strength
Beamwidth: total angle where relative signal power is 3dB
below peak value of main lobe
- can range from 1o to 360o
Beamwidth & Lobes indicate sharpness of pattern focus

90o

beam
0 width

180o

null
270o

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Center Frequency = optimum operating frequency

Antenna Bandwidth -3dB points of antenna performance
Bandwidth Ratio: Bandwidth/Center Frequency

e.g. fc = 100MHz with 10MHz bandwidth

- radiated power at 95MHz & 105MHz = radiated power at fc
- bandwidth ratio = 10/100 = 10%

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Antenna Design Basics

Main Trade-offs for Antenna Design
directivity & beam width
acceptable lobes
maximum gain
bandwidth
radiation angle
Bandwidth Issues
High Bandwidth Antennas tend to have less gain than
narrowband antennas
Narrowband Receive Antenna reduces interference from adjacent
signals & reduce received noise power

Antenna Dimensions
operating frequencies determine physical size of antenna elements
design often uses as a variable (e.g. 1.5 length, 0.25 spacing)
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Testing & Adjusting Transmitter use antennas electrical load

Testing required for
- proper modulation
- amplifier operation
- frequency accuracy
using actual antenna may cause significant interference
dummy antenna used for transmitter design (not antenna design)
- same impedance & electrical characteristics
- dissipates energy vs radiate energy
- isolates antenna from problem of testing transmitter

39

Testing Receiver
test & adjust receiver and transmission line without antenna
use single known signal from RF generator
follow on test with several signals present
verify receiver operation first then connect antenna to
verify antenna operation

Polarization
EM field has specific orientation of E-field & M field
Polarization Direction determined by antenna & physical orientation
Classification of E-field polarization
- horizontal polarization : E-field parallel to horizon
- vertical polarization: E-field vertical to horizon
- circular polarization: constantly rotating
40

Transmit & Receive Antenna must have same Polarization for

maximum signal energy induction
if polarizations arent same E-field of radiated signal will try to
induce E-field into wire to correct orientation
- theoretically no induced voltage
- practically small amount of induced voltage
Circular Polarization
compatible with any polarization field from horizontal to vertical
maximum gain is 3dB less than correctly oriented horizontal or
vertically polarized antenna

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Antenna Fundamentals
Dipole Antennas (Hertz): simple, old, widely used
- root of many advance antennas
consists of 2 spread conductors of 2 wire transmission lines
each conductor is in length

total span = + small center gap

Transmission
Line

Distinct voltage & current patterns

driven by transmission line at midpoint
i = 0 at end, maximum at midpoint
v = 0 at midpoint, vmax at ends
purely resistive impedance = 73
easily matched to many transmission lines

gap
i
+v
-v

High Impedance 2k-3k

Low Impedance 73

42

E-field (E) & M-field (B) used to determine radiation pattern

E goes through antenna ends & spreads out in increasing loops
B is a series of concentric circles centered at midpoint gap

43

3-dimensional field pattern is donut shaped

antenna is shaft through donut center
radiation pattern determined by taking slice of donut
- if antenna is horizontal slice reveals figure 8
- maximum radiation is broadside to antennas arms

Azimuth Pattern

Polar Radiation Pattern

Elevation Pattern

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 dipole performance isotropic reference antenna

in free space beamwidth = 78o
maximum gain = 2.1dB
dipole often used as reference antenna
- feed same signal power through dipole & test antenna
- compare field strength in all directions
Actual Construction
(i) propagation velocity in wire < propagation velocity in air
(ii) fields have fringe effects at end of antenna arms
- affected by capacitance of antenna elements
1st estimate: make real length 5% less than ideal - otherwise
introduce reactive parameter

Useful Bandwidth: 5%-15% of fc

major factor for determining bandwidth is diameter of conductor
smaller diameter narrow bandwidth
45

Multi-Band Dipole Antennas

use 1 antenna support several widely separated frequency bands
e.g. HAM Radio - 3.75MHz-29MHz
Traps: L,C elements inserted into dipole arms
arms appear to have different lengths at different frequencies
traps must be suitable for outdoor use
2ndry affects of trap impact effective dipole arm length-adjustable
not useful over 30MHz

2/4

2/4

C 1/4

1/4

Transmission
Line
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Transmit Receive Switches

allows use of single antenna for transmit & receive
alternately connects antenna to transmitter & receiver
high transmit power must be isolated from high gain receiver
isolation measured in dB
e.g. 100dB isolation 10W transmit signal 10nW receive signal

47

Elementary Antennas
low cost flexible solutions

Long Wire Antenna

effective wideband antenna
length l = several wavelengths
- used for signals with 0.1l < < 0.5l
- frequency span = 5:1

Transmission
Line

na
n
e
t
An

R=Z0

earth ground

drawback for band limited systems - unavoidable interference

near end driven by ungrounded transmitter output
far end terminated by resistor
- typically several hundred
- impedance matched to antenna Z0
transmitter electrical circuit ground connected to earth

48

practically - long wire is a lossy transmission line

- terminating resistor prevent standing waves
Polar radiation pattern
2 main lobes
- on either side of antenna
- pointed towards antenna termination
smaller lobes on each side of antenna pointing forward & back
radiation angle 45o (depending on height) useful for sky waves

feed
horizon
polar ration pattern

angular radiation pattern

49

poor efficiency:
transmit power
- 50% of transmit power radiated
- 50% dissapated in termination resistor
receive power
- 50% captured EM energy converted to signal for reciever
- 50% absorbed by terminating resistor

50

Folded Dipole Antenna

- basic dipole folded to form complete circuit
- core to many advanced antennas

/2

- mechanically more rugged than dipole

- 10% more bandwidth than dipole
- input impedance 292
- close match to std 300 twin lead wire transmission line
- use of different diameter upper & lower arms allows
variable impedance

51

Loop & Patch Antenna wire bent into loops

Patch Antenna: rectangular conducting area with || ground plane
V = k(2f)BAN
V = maximum voltage induced in receiver by EM field
B = magnetic field strength flux of EM field
A = area of loop
N = number of turns
f = signal frequency
k = physical proportionality factor

N-turns

Area A

Antenna
Plane

52

Radiation Pattern
maximum to center axis through loop
very low broadside to the loop
useful for direction finding
- rotate loop until signal null (minimum) observed
- transmitter is on either side of loop
- intersection with 2nd reading pinpoints transmitter

Loop & Patch Antennas are easy to embed in a product (e.g. pager)
Broadband antenna - 500k-1600k Hz bandwidth
Not as efficient as larger antennas

53

Name

Isotropic

Shape

Gain (over Beamwidth

isotropic)
-3 dB
0 dB

360

2.14 dB

55

Turnstile

-0.86 dB

50

Full Wave
Loop

3.14 dB

200

Yagi

7.14 dB

25

Helical

10.1 dB

30

Parabolic
Dipole

14.7 dB

20

Horn

15 dB

15

Biconical
Horn

14 dB

360x200

Dipole

Radiation Pattern

54

An AC current i(t), flowing in a wire produces an EM field

Assume i(t) applied at A with length l = /2
EM wave will travel along the wire until it reaches the B
B is a point of high impedence wave reflects toward A and is reflected
back again
resistance gradually dissipates the energy of the wave
wave is reinforced at A
results in continuous oscillations of energy along the wire and a high
voltage at the A end of the wire.

l = /2

c 3 108m/s
l = /2: wave will complete one cycle from A to B and back to A
= distance a wave travels during 1 cycle
f = c/ = c/2l
55

An AC current i(t), flowing in a wire produces an EM field

Assume i(t) applied at A with length l = /2
EM wave will travel along the wire until it reaches the B
B is a point of high impedence wave reflects toward A and is reflected
back again
resistance gradually dissipates the energy of the wave
wave is reinforced at A
results in continuous oscillations of energy along the wire and a high
voltage at the A end of the wire.

l = /2

c 3 108m/s
l = /2: wave will complete one cycle from A to B and back to A
= distance a wave travels during 1 cycle
f = c/ = c/2l
56

Dipole antenna: 2 wires each with length l = /4

attach ends to terminals of a high frequency AC generator
at time t, the generators right side = + and the left side =

i(t)

B
l = /4

current distribution at time t

------------------------------------------------------------------------

++++
+++++++
+++++++++++
+++++++++++++++
+++++++++++++++

voltage distribution at time t

electrons flow away from the terminal and towards the + terminal
most current flows in the center and none flows at the ends
i(t) at any point will vary directly with v(t)
cycle after electrons have begun to flow max number of electrons will be at A and min
number at B
vmax(t) is developed
i(t) = 0
57

Outline..
Todays session includes.

Traffic Measurement Units.

Improving Coverage and Capacity in
Cellular Systems

Improving Coverage and Capacity in Cellular Systems (1)

As demand for wireless services increases, number of channels for
providing wireless medium becomes insufficient to provide the
facility.
Hence, methods are necessary to provide more channels within the
given area.
For this, methods like
cell splitting, cell sectoring and micro-cell zone concepts are used.
Repeaters are used to extend the coverage area specially in the hilly or
tunnel regions.

59

Improving Coverage and Capacity in Cellular Systems (2)

Cell Splitting:
It is the process of subdividing
the cells into smaller cells.
This reduces the transmitter
power and also the height of
antenna towers.
Cell splitting increases number
of cells in the given
geographical area and hence
more frequency reuse is
possible to handle more users.
These small cells are called as
micro-cells which increases
capacity by allowing more
subscribers within the same
area.
60

Improving Coverage and Capacity in Cellular Systems (3)

Cell Sectoring:
In cell splitting Q value decreases and
voice quality decreases.
To avoid this cell sectoring is used.
Cell is divided into small sectors and
each antenna concentrates in a given
direction only.
Sectorial antennas are used to
concentrate energy in particular
direction only.
Generally 60 or 120 sectors are used.

60
Sector

120
Sector
61

Improving Coverage and Capacity in Cellular Systems (4)

Cell sectoring can be done as shown
in figure.
Same set can be reused many times.
Minimum 1 cell gap is necessary to
isolate same frequency band.

62

Improving Coverage and Capacity in Cellular Systems (5)

Cell repeaters are used to extend
the cellular coverage specially in
the remote, hilly or tunnel regions
where direct transmission is
difficult.

Repeaters can be used in remote

areas where call origination is very
less and can be connected to a
main central system.

63

References
1. Wireless Communication: Principles and Practices, 2nd Edition,
Theodre S. Rappaport, Pearson Education
2. Websites:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

http://www.privateline.com/Cellbasics/
www.trai.gov.in
www.bsnl.co.in
www.dekolink.com
www.users.uma.maine.edu

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