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Stress
Same as pressure
Force/ area
Units in earth sciences are Mpa= 10 6 Pa =
10 bars=10atm=147 psi
Stress
Strain
Lithospheric Pressure
The vertical component can calculated as Pc=gz,
where,
Pc = lithostatic pressure (also confining pressure)
=average density in g/cc
g= gavitational constant
z=depth
In the lithosphere Pc increases at about 25 30
Mpa/km
In general Pc increases at *10MPa/km
Lithostatic pressure
Confining pressure- due to the weight of the
surrounding rock
Unlike hydrostatic pressure which is equal in all
directions, lithostatic pressure is not always equal
in all directions. The principal compressive stress
1 may be oriented vertically or laterally
As confining pressure increases:
Rock strain proceeds from brittle to ductile behavior.
Ductile deformation dominates at Pc > 700 kg/cm2.
Higher confining pressures resists opening of fractures
Rock strength increases (greater amounts of strain
accumulate before failure occurs).
Lithostatic pressure
Rock strength decreases with:
Increasing temperatures (reduces rock strength
and increases ductility)
decreasing strain rate (increasing time); rocks
more ductile at lower strain rates.
Foliations
Increased porosity
Presence of water
Mechanics of deformation
Stress and Strain
Elastic Deformation
Plastic Deformation
Fracture (Rupture)
Ductile
Deformation:
Folds
Ductile
Deformation:
Folds
Ductile
Deformation:
Folds
The bends noticed in rocks are
known as folds
When a set of horizontal layers
is subjected to compressive
forces it is bent as shown in the
fig.
Under ductile conditions rocks
fold or bend without breaking
Folds are best displayed by
stratified formations such as
sedimentary or volcanic
formations or their metamorphic
equivalents
Some folds are a few miles
across while others may be
measured in feet or inches or
even fraction of an inch
Fig. The most common types of folds: synclines and anticlines. Note
that the youngest that the youngest rocks are found at center of a
syncline while the oldest are found at the center of an anticline
Dome
Folds
Brittle deformation
Very often rocks are subjected to high
JOINTS
Joints are fracture planes in rocks
JOINTS
JOINTS
(CONTINUED)
Sets of joints
Types of Joints:
Tensional Joints:
Genetic
Classification
these
are also
known as shrinkage
joints
Compressional
joints: These are
developed due to
compressional forces
Shear joints:
These are formed
under the forces
acing as a couple
Types of Joints
Tensional Joints: these are
Sheet joints
Sheet joints
Types of Joints:
Genetic Classification
Exfoliation
Domes- -Spherical
joint surfaces of
intrusive/metamorph
ic rocks; Common in
steep topography
FAULTS
FAULTS
Faults are well defined cracks
FAULTS
Different faults
Strike-slip fault
Different structures
geotechnical significance
Brittle deformation of rocks
and/or sedimentation
processes introduce defects
They have variable geometry,
continuity, shear strength and
cohesion
Such defects could significantly
reduce the rock block or rock
mass strength, especially in an
unconfined situation
It is typical industry practice
when describing a drill core, to
call fractures that do not have Example of continuous block forming
bonding cement, as open joints and discontinuous joints in the rock
outcrop (above) and in the drill core
Foliated Rocks or
sedimentary rocks which
have well developed
bedding planes exhibit
strong weakness and are
challenging
ground
Control of seepage in case of dams
Providing foundation support for structures
It is done by grouting
Grouting
Grouting is one of the important techniques used in
Grouting
Different grouts: There
Compaction
grouting
grout
Chemical grout
Clay grout
Jet grouting
Compaction grouting