MATERIALS &

CONSTRUCTION
SUBSTRUCTURE

Sub-Structure

A structure always consists of the

substructure & superstructure.
Part of the structure above the G.L. is called
superstructure e.g. building
Part of the structure below the G.L. is called
substructure.
Substructure governs the proper alignment
& position of the superstructure.
Load of super structure is transmitted to the
foundation bed through the substructure.

Foundation

This is entire sub structural unit, which

supports the super structure.
Foundation is transmitting medium in the
form of a pedestal, footing, pile system,
pier & the supporting foundation bed.
The transmitting medium is constructed in
RCC & the foundation bed in the form of
sound bed rock or soil.

Foundation in B.C soil

B.C soil means black cotton soil. When wet,

it swells excessively & when dry it shrinks.

Due to swelling & shrinking, the construction

on it has always been a difficult problem.

By taking all the precautions, if we construct

a structure on it ,it may fail without giving
any warning.

Hence B.C. soil is very dangerous for the

buildings.

Functions of Foundation

To distribute the load of entire structure

over a wide spread area to prevent it from
any movement.

To support the weight of superstructure.

To prevent any lateral escape of the

supporting material as it will endanger the
structure.

To increase the stability of the structure as

a whole to prevent it from sliding or
overturning.

Settlement of Foundation

It is vertical downward movement of the

loaded base. As a result of this the original
depth of soil mass decreases due to soil
grains coming together.
The settlement of the base is mainly due
to volume change.
The amount of settlement is different for
different type of soil or rock.
E.g. very low settlement for rocky strata &
it is large in case of marshy land.

Settlement is a time dependent process

i.e. in case of clayey soil, settlement is
very gradual, continues for a long time &
is more.
For sandy soil it is quick & less.

Causes of Settlement

Liquefaction during earthquake.

Soil compaction due to shocks & vibrations.

Lowering of water table.

Excavation

Excessive expansion & contraction of swelling

soils.

Uniform Settlement

If the downward vertical movement of the

base of the structure is equal, the
settlement is uniform.
This settlement will not cause any damage
to the structure. But excessive uniform
settlement will damage the underground
utility services like water supply, drainage,
telephone lines, electric cables etc.
This settlement is possible if the loaded
base rests on a homogeneous, rigid &
uniformly loaded soil.

Differential Settlement

One part of structure settles more than

other.
The difference between the magnitudes of
the settlements at any two points is known
as differential settlement.
Serious type of settlement, because may
cause large structural damage.
This settlement needs to be controlled.

The ratio of differential settlement to the

distance between the points is called
angular distortion.

Types of Foundation

Depth of foundation below ground surface is

the important criteria to decide the type of
foundation.
If depth of foundation (D) is less than the
width of foundation (B) then it is known as a
shallow foundation otherwise it is a deep
foundation.
Shallow foundations are used if the supporting
soil or rock layer carries the load very near to
the ground surface.
Structures like bridge supports or if foundation
bed is of swelling soil type, deep foundations
are employed.

Spread Footing

Are used to distribute concentrated load

from the superstructure over a wider area
& enable the soil bed to provide a safe &
unyielding support.

Spread Footing

Strip footing:
Known as wall footing, used below light
structures e.g. garden walls or compound
walls.
Necessary width of footing is obtained by a
single step from the wall width.
If the projection of footing beyond wall is
excessive, footing may crack due to
cantilever action. So width of footing is
obtained by number of steps or offsets of
width 50-150mm from the wall.

Isolated Footing

Used to support individual columns.

In framed structure it is important to
provide isolated footing for each column.
They can be square, rectangular, circular &
sloped in shape depending upon the site
condition & load distribution.
Sloped footing is most common footing
used in modern RCC buildings.

Combined Footing

When loads on adjacent columns are very high or

bearing capacity of soil is less, two columns are
grouped together to form a combined footing.
Possibility of differential settlement is also
reduced when footings are provided with a
common base.
When loads on the columns are same & high,
distance between them is less a rectangular
combined footing is preferred by projection of
footings beyond the columns
Otherwise a trapezoidal footing is provided When
loads on the columns are high& different.

Cantilever Footing

Some times it is not possible to provide

footing exactly below the end column due
to its projection beyond the column face
because of plot restrictions or the distance
between two heavily columns is so large
that combined footing will be
uneconomical.
In such case separate footing are provided
for external & internal columns & simply
connected by a cantilever beam.

Mat or Raft Footing

Employed when bearing capacity of the

soil is very low or it is difficult to control
differential settlement or loads are heavy
or spread footing would cover more than
50% of the area.

It distributes the load over a wider area

such that the load transferred to soil below
is much less than the bearing capacity.

Deep Foundation

Provided when
the soil exactly below the structure within a
reasonable depth is not capable of supporting the
building load safely, e.g. B.C. soil.
Open foundation is not possible
Loads are heavy, non-uniform& possibility of
differential settlement
Mat or Raft foundation is uneconomical

Function is to transfer the load of the building

to the firm layers deep inside the ground.

Pile Foundation

A slender column capable of transferring

the structural loads to the deep underlying
layers.
Piles have end tip or point contact just to
rest on the deep seated rock.
According to action of pile to support the
load, the piles are classified as end
bearing & friction piles.

End bearing piles:

When pile transfer the load of the building
through a soft soil strata to a suitable
bearing stratum at greater depths, then it
is called an end bearing pile.
Pile rests on hard strata at greater depths.

Friction pile:
When pile transfer the load by means of
only skin friction without any end bearing
then called it as a friction pile.
Soil in which pile is driven, offers
resistance to the pile by virtue of friction,
in turn shares the load due to contact.

End Bearing Piles

PILES

SOFT SOIL

ROCK

Friction Piles

PILES

SOFT SOIL

Strength
increases
with depth