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Classification of matter
Elements
Pure substances can be further classified into
elements and compounds.
Elements are the simplest pure substances
consisting of only one type of atom. They
cannot be broken down (or decomposed).
Compounds
Mixtures
The particles of each component in
homogeneous mixtures are distributed
uniformly (eg: sugar dissolved in water).
The particles in heterogeneous mixtures are
not distributed uniformly (eg: concrete)
Chemical analysis
Chemical analysis is the process of finding out what
is present in a particular chemical sample.
Chemical analysis can be:
Qualitative determining what substances are
present
Quantitative determining how much of each
substance is present in a sample.
Gravimetric analysis
Gravimetric analysis involves separating the
components of a material and accurately
determining their mass. The percentage composition
of the material can then be calculated. Gravimetric
analysis can be used to determine the:
composition of a mixture using physical separation
techniques
% composition of a compound using chemical and
physical separation techniques.
Elements
Elements consist of atoms of the same type. Many
elements exist in nature as molecules.
Monatomic molecules: consist of only one atom
(eg: noble gases)
Diatomic molecules: a molecule in which two
atoms are bonded together.
Polyatomic molecules: a molecule of more than
two atoms bonded together
Reactivity of elements
Elements vary in their tendency to react. Elements
that react readily (eg: calcium, sodium) are usually
found combined with other elements as
compounds. On the other hand elements such as
gold which have low reactivity are often found in
their pure form.
Metals
Relatively high densities
Good conductors of heat and electricity
Malleable and ductile
Shiny surface when freshly cut of cleaned
Relatively high melting points
Non-metals
State and form is variable (oxygen is a gas,
bromine a liquid, sulfur a solid)
Usually not lustrous
Poor conductors heat and electricity
Not malleable or ductile
Variable melting points
Atomic theory
An atom is made up of three fundamental particles:
Protons: positively charged particle
Neutrons: neutral
Electrons: negatively charged particle
In an uncharged atom:
The nucleus
Contains protons and neutrons.
Has a positive charge equal to the number of
protons
Contains about 99.9% of the mass of the atom
Extremely dense
Electrons move in space outside the nucleus
number of neutrons
number of neutrons
Therefore:
A
A
Z
Electrons
Electrons are believed to exist in energy levels or
shells. The maximum number of electrons in each
shell is determined by the formula 2n2 (where n =
shell number 1, 2, 3, 4, etc). So:
1st shell: can hold a maximum of 2 electrons
2nd shell: can hold a maximum of 8 electrons
3rd shell: can hold a maximum of 18 electrons
4th shell: can hold a maximum of 32 electrons
Electron configuration
The pattern of electrons in each shell is called the
electron configuration. When determining the
electron configuration of an atom the general rule is:
Starting from the innermost shell, each electron
shell or energy level must be filled before moving
to the next energy level or shell.
NB: potassium and calcium are exceptions
Sodium
23
Na
11
Octet rule
In general, atoms are
most stable when they
have 8 electrons in their
outer-most shell. This
accounts for the lack of
reactivity of the noble
gases.
Ions
Elements can achieve stable electron configurations
by losing or gaining electrons. In doing so they form
ions.
Positively charged ions (cations) are formed when
one or more electrons are removed from an atom.
Negatively charged ions (anions) are formed when
an atom gains one or more electrons
2 valence
electrons
7 valence
electrons
6 valence
electrons
Polyatomic ions
Polyatomic ions are groups of atoms bonded to
one another that have a net positive or negative
charge. The carbonate ion is an example of a
The superscript 2- indicates
polyatomic ion.
Covalent bonds
Covalent bonds are formed when adjacent atoms
share electrons. For example, a chlorine atom has
the electron configuration (2, 8, 7). Two chlorine
atoms can combine to form a chlorine molecule Cl 2
by sharing a pair of electrons (each atom
contributes one electron).
http://www.gcsescience.com/Chlorine-Formation.gif
Ionic or covalent?
If one member of a pair of atoms wants to gain
electrons while the other wants to lose electrons
then the pair will form an ionic bond. If both
members want to gain electrons then they will form
covalent bonds.
Question:
Will Group I elements tend to form ionic bonds or
covalent bonds?
What about Group 6 elements?
Valency
The valency of an element is a measure of its
combining power (the number of bonds it can form).
When an element forms ionic compounds the
valency is the charge the atom carries.
Ex: Na+ = +1 valency
When an element forms covalent compounds
valency is the number of covalent bonds the atom
forms.
Ex: water is H-O-H, the valency of O = 2 and H = 1
2.
3.
Chemical equations
In a chemical reaction the arrangement of atoms
is changed to produce new substances but atoms
are neither destroyed or created eg: mass is
conserved.
Chemical reactions are represented by chemical
equations.
magnesium oxide
2 x Mg
2xO
2xO
Balancing equations
Balancing a chemical equation is done by
changing the coefficients in front of the formulas.
1.
Write the word equation
2.
Write the formula for all elements and
compounds present
3.
Alter the coefficients to balance the number
of each type of atom on both sides of the
equation
4.
Write in the physical states
Decomposition reactions
Decomposition is a chemical reaction in which a
compound is broken down into their constituent
elements or simpler compounds. This is achieved
by adding energy as:
Heat (thermal decomposition)
Light
Electricity (electrolysis)
Synthesis reactions
Synthesis is the process of forming a compound
from its component elements or other compounds in
a laboratory. It leads to the formation of a more
complex substance. For example, ammonia can be
synthesised directly by combining nitrogen and
hydrogen gases at high temperatures and
pressures.
Bond energy
A chemical change generally involves the
absorption or release of greater quantities of
energy than a physical change.
Reason: