Chapter 25 - Machining Centers, Machine Tool Structures and Machining Economics

Manufacturing Engineering Technology in SI Units,
6th Edition
Chapter 25:
Machining Centers, Machine Tool
Structures and Machining Economics
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Chapter Outline
Introduction
Machining Centers
Machine-tool Structures
Vibration and Chatter in Machining Operations
High-speed Machining
Hard Machining
Ultraprecision Machining
Machining Economics
Introduction
Computers improved the capabilities of machine tools

Have the capability of rapidly producing extremely
complex part geometries
Machining Centers
1.
2.
Brief review:
Possibilities exist in net-shape or near-net shape
production
Some form of machining is required and is more
economical to finish machine parts to their final shapes
Machining Centers
The Concept of Machining Centers
Machining parts can be highly automated to increase

productivity
Transfer lines are used in high-volume or mass

production, consist of several specific machine tools
arranged in a logical sequence
Workpiece is moved from station to station, with a

specific machining operation performed at each station
A machining center is an advanced computer-controlled

machine tool that perform machining operations without
removing
Machining Centers
Machining Centers
Components of a Machining Center
The workpiece in a machining center is placed on a

pallet, or module
Can be moved and swiveled in various directions
New pallet is brought in by an automatic pallet

changer
A machining center is equipped with a programmable

automatic tool changer (ATC)
Machining Centers
Components of a Machining Center
The tool-exchange arm swings around to pick up a

particular tool and places it in the spindle
Tool-checking and/or part-checking station would

feeds information to the machine control system
Touch probes select the tool settings and inspect parts

being machined
Machining Centers:
Types of Machining Centers
Vertical-spindle Machining Centers
Performing various machining

operations on parts with deep
cavities, as in mold and die making
Horizontal-spindle Machining Centers
Suitable for large and

tall workpieces that
require machining on a
number of their surfaces
Machining Centers:
Characteristics and Capabilities of Machining
Centers
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Major characteristics of machining centres:

Handles a wide variety of part sizes and shapes
efficiently
Versatile and quick changeover
Time required is reduced
Detection of tool breakage and wear
Inspection of machined work
Compact and highly automated
Machining Centers:
Selection of Machining Centers
1.
2.
3.
4.
Selection of type and size of machining centers

depends on:
Type of products, their size, and their shape complexity
Type of machining operations to be performed and the
type and number of cutting tools required
Dimensional accuracy required
Production rate required
Machining Centers:
Selection of Machining Centers
EXAMPLE 25.1
Machining Outer Bearing Races on a Turning Center
Machining of outer bearing races
Machining Centers:
Reconfigurable Machines and
Systems
There is a need for the flexibility of manufacturing

which involve concept of reconfigurable machines,
consisting of various modules
3 axis machining center can perform different
machining operations while accommodating various
workpiece sizes and part geometries
Machining Centers:
Reconfigurable Machines and
Systems
A five-axis machine can be reconfigured by assembling

different modules
Machine-tool Structures:
Materials
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
A list of materials suitable for machine-tool structures:

Gray cast iron
Welded steel
Ceramic
Composites
Graniteepoxy composites
Polymer concrete
Machine-tool Design Considerations
1.
2.
3.
4.
Important considerations in machine tools:

Design, materials, and construction
Spindle materials and construction
Thermal distortion of machine components
Error compensation and the control of moving
components along slideways
Stiffness
It is a function of the:
1.
Elastic modulus of the materials used
2.
Geometry of the structural components
Enhanced by using diagonally arranged interior ribs

Thermal Distortion
2 sources of heat in machine tools:

1.
Internal sources
2.
External sources
Assembly Techniques for Machine-tool Components
Traditionally components have been assembled using

threaded fasteners and welding
Advanced assembly techniques include integral casting

and resin bonding
Guideways
Plain cast-iron ways in machines require much care to

achieve the required precision and service life
Linear Motor Drives
A linear motor is a typical rotary electric motor that has

been rolled out (opened) flat
Sliding surfaces in drives are separated by an air gap

and have very low friction
Some advantages:
1.
Simplicity and minimal maintenance
2.
Smooth operation, better positioning accuracy, and
repeatability
3.
Wide range of linear speeds
4.
Moving components encounter no wear
Hexapod Machines
1.
2.
3.
Goals in the developments of design and materials:

Machining flexibility to machine tools
Increasing their machining envelope
Making them lighter
Hexapods are parallel kinematic linked machines
They are loaded axially,
bending stresses and
deflections are minimal,
resulting in stiff structure
Vibration and Chatter in Machining

Operations
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Low stiffness can cause vibration and chatter of the

cutting tools and the machine components, causing
adverse effects on product quality
Chatter results in:
Poor surface finish
Loss of dimensional accuracy
Premature wear, chipping, and failure of the cutting tool
Damage to the machine-tool components
Objectionable noise

Operations
Forced Vibration
Caused by some periodic applied force present in the

machine tool
The basic solution to forced vibration is to isolate or

remove the forcing element
Vibrations can be minimized by changing the

configuration of the machine-tool components
Due to driving forces that are close to the center of

gravity

Operations
Self-excited Vibration
Caused by the interaction of the chip-removal process

with the structure of the machine tool, they have high
amplitude
Possible causes are:

1.
Type of chips produced
2.
Inhomogeneities in the workpiece material
3.
Variations in the frictional conditions at the toolchip
interface
Regenerative chatter is when a tool cutting a surface

that has a roughness or geometric disturbances
developed

Operations
Self-excited Vibration
Self-excited vibrations can be controlled by:

1.
Increasing the stiffness and dynamic stiffness of the
system
2.
Damping
Dynamic stiffness is defined as the ratio of the appliedforce amplitude to the vibration amplitude
Operation will likely lead to chatter, beginning with

torsional vibration around the spindle axis and twisting
of the arm during turning

Operations
Factors Influencing Chatter
Tendency for chatter during machining is proportional to

the cutting forces and the depth and width of the cut
Cutting forces increase with strength and the tendency

to chatter increases as hardness increases
Continuous chips involve steady cutting forces and do

not cause chatter
Discontinuous chips and serrated chips cause chatter

Operations
Damping
Damping is defined as the rate at which vibrations

decay
A major factor in controlling machine-tool vibration and

chatter
Internal damping results from the energy loss in

materials during vibration
External damping is accomplished with external

dampers that are similar to shock absorbers on
automobiles or machines

Operations
Damping

Operations
Guidelines for Reducing Vibration and Chatter
Basic guidelines:
1.
Minimize tool overhang
2.
Improve the stiffness of work-holding devices and
support workpieces
3.
Modify tool and cutter geometry to minimize forces or
make them uniform
4.
Change process parameters
5.
Increase stiffness of the machine tool and its
components
6.
Improve the damping capacity of the machine tool
Spindle designs for high speeds require high stiffness

and accuracy
Due to inertia effects during the acceleration and
decelaration of machine-tool components, there is a
use of lightweight materials consideration
High-speed machining should take cutting time as a
cosideration
High-speed machining is economical for certain specific
applications
As cutting speed increases, more heat is generated,
while the tool and workpiece should remain close to
ambient temperature
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Machine-tool characteristics:
Spindle design for stiffness, accuracy, and balance at
very high rotational speeds
Bearing characteristics
Inertia of the machine-tool components
Fast feed drives
Selection of appropriate cutting tools
Processing parameters and their computer control
Work-holding devices that can withstand high
centrifugal forces
Hard Machining
As the hardness of the workpiece increases, its

machinability decreases, and tool wear and fracture,
surface finish, and surface integrity are problems
Hard machining or hard turning produces machined
parts with good dimensional accuracy and surface
finish
Hard turning can compete successfully with the
grinding proces
Modern ultraprecision machine tools with advanced

computer controls can have an accuracy approaching 1
nm
Ultraprecision machines are located in a dust-free
environment
General Considerations for Precision Machining
Important factors in precision and ultraprecision

machining and machine tools:
1.
Machine-tool design, construction, and assembly
2.
Motion control of various components
3.
Spindle technology
4.
Thermal growth of the machine tool
5.
Cutting-tool selection and application
6.
Machining parameters
7.
Real-time performance and control of the machine tool
Machining Economics
1.
2.
3.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Limitations of machining operations include

Longer time required
Need to reduce non-cutting time
Wasted material
The costs involved are:
Machine tools, work-holding devices, fixtures and
cutting tools
Labor and overhead
Setting up time
Material handling and movement
Dimensional accuracy and surface finish
Cutting times and non-cutting time
Machining Economics
Minimizing Machining Cost per Piece
Machining cost per piece and machining time per piece

can be minimized
It is important that input data is accurate and up to date
Total machining cost per piece is

C p C m C s Cl Ct
Machining Economics
The machining cost is given

Cm Tm Lm Bm
The loading, unloading, and machine-handling cost

is
Cl Tl Lm Bm
1
Tc Lm Bm Di 1 Ti Lm Bm
N
N
The tooling cost is Ct
The time required to produce one part is

T p Tl Tm
Tc
T
i
Ni N f
Machining Economics
For a turning operation; the machining time is

L LD
Tm
fN
fV
C
1/ m
From the Taylor tool-life equation, T
T
The number of pieces per insert face is N f
Tm
mT
Number of pieces per insert is given by N i mN f
Tm
Machining Economics
Combination of equations is given by N i
For min cost, we differentiate Cp with respect to V and

set it to zero,
C p
V
mfC 1/ m
LDV (1/ n ) 1
The optimum cutting speed is

V0
C Lm Bm
n
1 1
1
T
L
T
L

c
m
m
i
i
m
m
n m
Machining Economics
The optimum tool life is

1
T0 1
n
1
Tc Lm Bm Di Ti Lm Bm
m
Lm Bm
For max production, we differentiate Tp with respect to

V and set the result to zero,
T p
V
Machining Economics
The optimum cutting speed is

V0
C
1
n 1
Tc

Ti
The optimum tool life is
1 Tc
1
Ti
n m
T0

Chapter 25 - Machining Centers, Machine Tool Structures and Machining Economics

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Chapter 25 - Machining Centers, Machine Tool Structures and Machining Economics

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Manufacturing Engineering Technology in SI Units,

Copyright 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Computers improved the capabilities of machine tools

Copyright 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Copyright 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Machining parts can be highly automated to increase

Transfer lines are used in high-volume or mass

Workpiece is moved from station to station, with a

A machining center is an advanced computer-controlled

Copyright 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

The workpiece in a machining center is placed on a

Can be moved and swiveled in various directions

New pallet is brought in by an automatic pallet

A machining center is equipped with a programmable

Copyright 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

The tool-exchange arm swings around to pick up a

Tool-checking and/or part-checking station would

Touch probes select the tool settings and inspect parts

Copyright 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Performing various machining

Suitable for large and

Copyright 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Major characteristics of machining centres:

Copyright 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Selection of type and size of machining centers

Copyright 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Machining of outer bearing races

Copyright 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

There is a need for the flexibility of manufacturing

Copyright 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

A five-axis machine can be reconfigured by assembling

Copyright 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

A list of materials suitable for machine-tool structures:

Copyright 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Important considerations in machine tools:

Copyright 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Enhanced by using diagonally arranged interior ribs

2 sources of heat in machine tools:

Traditionally components have been assembled using

Advanced assembly techniques include integral casting

Plain cast-iron ways in machines require much care to

Copyright 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

A linear motor is a typical rotary electric motor that has

Sliding surfaces in drives are separated by an air gap

Goals in the developments of design and materials:

Copyright 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Vibration and Chatter in Machining

Low stiffness can cause vibration and chatter of the

Copyright 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Vibration and Chatter in Machining

Caused by some periodic applied force present in the

The basic solution to forced vibration is to isolate or

Vibrations can be minimized by changing the

Due to driving forces that are close to the center of

Copyright 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Vibration and Chatter in Machining

Caused by the interaction of the chip-removal process

Possible causes are:

Regenerative chatter is when a tool cutting a surface

Vibration and Chatter in Machining

Self-excited vibrations can be controlled by:

Operation will likely lead to chatter, beginning with

Copyright 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Vibration and Chatter in Machining