Topic 4 - Workplace Motivation

Topic 4:
Workplace Motivation
7-1
Copyright 2015 Pearson Education Ltd.
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be
able to:
Define motivation and describe the three
key elements of motivation.
Evaluate the applicability of early theories of
motivation.
Discuss the contemporary theories of
motivation
Describe the job characteristics model and
various types of work arrangements
7-2
Key Elements of
Motivation
LO 1
Motivation is the processes that account

for an individuals intensity, direction, and
persistence of effort toward attaining a
goal.
The level of motivation varies both
between individuals and within individuals
Motivation
is the processes
that account for an individuals intensity, direction,
at different
times.
and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal. We will narrow the focus to
organizational goals in order to reflect our singular interest in work-related
behavior. Keep in mind that the level of motivation varies both between
individuals and within individuals at different times.
7-3
Key Elements of
Motivation
LO 1
The three key elements of motivation are:

1. Intensity: concerned with how hard a
person tries.
2. Direction: the orientation that benefits
the organization.
3. Persistence: a measure of how long a
person can maintain his/her effort.
7-4
Early Theories of Motivation

Maslow Theory
LO 2
7-5
Abraham Maslows hierarchy of needs is the most well-known

theory of motivation. Maslow hypothesized that within every
human being there exists a hierarchy of five needs, beginning
with physiological needs that include hunger, thirst, shelter,
sex, and other bodily needs. The second level is safety needs
that include security and protection from physical and
emotional harm. The next level is social needs that include
affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship.
Reaching a higher level, we find esteem needs that include
internal esteem factors such as self-respect, autonomy, and
achievement, and external esteem factors such as status,
recognition, and attention. At the top of the hierarchy is selfactualization needs; this is the drive to become what one is
capable of becoming, and includes growth, achieving ones
potential, and self-fulfillment.
Maslow separated the five needs into higher and lower orders. As a
need becomes substantially satisfied, the next need becomes

dominant. No need is ever fully gratified; a substantially
satisfied need no longer motivates.
1-6

Theory X and Theory Y
LO 2
Theory X and Theory Y

Theory X assumptions are basically
negative.
Employees inherently dislike work and
must be coerced into performing.
Theory Y assumptions are basically
positive.
Employees can view work as being as
natural as rest or play.
7-7
Douglas McGregors Theory X and Theory Y

concluded that a managers view of the nature
of human beings is based on a certain grouping
of assumptions, and that he or she tends to
mold his or her behavior toward employees
according to these assumptions.
Theory X assumptions are basically negative
employees
inherently
dislike
work
and,
whenever possible, will attempt to avoid it.
Theory Y assumptions are basically positive
employees can view work as being as natural as
rest or play.
1-8
LO 2
Having Little Ambition
Theory X
Managers See Workers As
Disliking Work
Avoiding Responsibility
Self-Directed
Theory Y
Enjoying Work
Managers See Workers As
Accepting Responsibility
Douglas McGregor said that managers hold one of two sets of

assumptions about human nature: either Theory X or Theory Y. Seeing
people as irresponsible and lazy, managers who follow Theory X assume
the following:
1. Employees inherently dislike work and will try to avoid it.
2. Since employees dislike work, they must be coerced, controlled, or
threatened to achieve goals.
3. Employees avoid responsibilities and seek formal direction, if possible.
4. Most workers place security above all other work-related factors and will
display little ambition.
Since they see people as responsible and conscientious, managers who
follow Theory Y assume the following:
1. Employees can view work as being as natural as rest or play.
2. When committed to their objectives, people will exercise self-direction
and self-control
3. The average person can learn to accept, even seek, responsibility.
4. Many workers besides managers have innovative decision-making skills.
No hard evidence confirms that either set of assumptions is universally
true. It is more likely that the assumptions of Theory X or Theory Y may or
may not be appropriate, depending on the situation at hand.
10
LO 2
Motivational Theories X
&Y
SA
Esteem
Social (Love )
Safety & Security
Physiological
Theory Y - a set of
assumptions of how to
manage individuals
motivated by higher
order needs
Theory X - a set of
assumptions of how to
manage individuals
motivated by lower
order needs
Evaluate the Applicability of

LO 2
7-12
Proposed by psychologist Frederick Herzberg when he

investigated the question, What do people want from their
jobs? the two-factor theory is sometimes also called motivationhygiene theory. Herzberg asked people to describe situations in
which they felt exceptionally good or bad about their jobs. These
responses were then tabulated and categorized.
From the categorized responses, Herzberg concluded that
intrinsic
factors,
such
as
advancement,
recognition,
responsibility, and achievement seem to be related to job
satisfaction. Dissatisfied respondents tended to cite extrinsic
factors, such as supervision, pay, company policies, and working
conditions.
Moreover, the opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction.
Removing dissatisfying characteristics from a job does not
necessarily make the job satisfying. Job satisfaction factors are
separate and distinct from job dissatisfaction factors.
1-13
LO 2
Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory
Bottom Line: Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction are

not Opposite Ends of the Same Thing!
Hygiene
Factors:
Salary
Work
Condition
s
Company
Policies
Separate constructs
Hygiene Factors---Extrinsic
& Related to
Dissatisfaction
Motivation Factors--Intrinsic and Related to

Satisfaction
Motivators:
Achievement
Responsibility
Growth

Herzberg Two Factor Theory
LO 2
Managers who eliminate job dissatisfaction factors may not necessarily bring
about motivation. Exhibit 7-3 reveals that when hygiene factors are adequate,
people will not be dissatisfied. Neither will they be satisfied. To motivate
people, managers must emphasize intrinsically rewarding factors that are
associated with the work itself or to outcomes directly derived from it.
7-15
Contemporary Theories of
Motivation
Goal-Setting
Theory
Goal-Setting
Theory
LO 3
Goals tell an employee what needs to be done and how much effort is
needed.
Evidence suggests:
Specific goals increase performance.
Difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than do easy
goals.
Feedback leads to higher performance than does non-feedback.
In the late 1960s, Edwin Lockes goal-setting theory proposed that

intentions to work toward a goal are a major source of work motivation.
Goals tell an employee what needs to be done and how much effort is
needed. Evidence strongly suggests that specific goals increase
performance, and that difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher
performance than do easy goals. Also, people will do better when they get
feedback on how well they are progressing toward their goals. Self-generated
feedback is more powerful a motivator than externally generated feedback.
7-16
LO 3
Motivation
Self-Efficacy Theory
Self-efficacy theory is an individuals belief that he or she is capable
of performing a task.
Enactive mastery - gaining relevant experience with the task or job
Vicarious modeling - becoming more confident because you see
someone else doing the task
Verbal persuasion - occurring when a person is more confident
because someone convinces him that he has the skills
Arousal - leads to an energized state, driving a person to complete
the task
Also known as social cognitive theory and social learning theory.
Self-efficacy theory, also as social cognitive theory and social learning

theory, is a new theory gaining much attention. Albert Bandura, the
developer of self-efficacy theory, defined four characteristics: enactive
mastery, or gaining relevant experience with the task or job; vicarious
modeling, or becoming more confident because you see someone else
doing the task; verbal persuasion, occurring when a person is more
confident because someone convinces him that he has the skills; and
arousal, which leads to an energized state, driving a person to complete
the task.
7-17
Motivation
LO 3
Goal-setting theory and self-efficacy theory dont compete with one

another; they complement each other, as shown in Exhibit 75.
7-18
Motivation
LO 3
Implications of self-efficacy theory:

Training programs often make use of enactive mastery by having
people practice and build their skills.
Intelligence and personality are absent from Banduras list, but they
can increase self-efficacy.
What are the implications of self-efficacy theory? First, training programs often make use of
enactive mastery by having people practice and build their skills. In fact, one reason training works
is that it increases self-efficacy. Second, individuals with higher levels of self-efficacy also appear to
reap more benefits from training programs and are more likely to use their training on the job.
Intelligence and personality are absent from Banduras list, but they can increase self-efficacy.
People who are intelligent, conscientiousness, and emotionally stable are so much more likely to
have high self-efficacy that some researchers argue self-efficacy is less important than prior
research would suggest. They believe it is partially a by-product in a smart person with a confident
personality. Although Bandura strongly disagrees with this conclusion, more research is needed.
7-19
LO 3
Equity Theory
Focuses on the desire to be treated with equity and to avoid
perceived inequity
Equity / inequity is a perceptual belief that one is being
treated fairly / unfairly in relation to others.
What role does equity play in motivation? Equity theory argues that individuals
make comparisons of their job inputs and outcomes relative to those of others
and then respond to any inequities. If we perceive our ratio to be equal to that of
the relevant others with whom we compare ourselves, a state of equity is said to
exist. We perceive our situation as fair. When we see the ratio as unequal, we
experience equity tension.
7-20
LO 3
Equity Theory
When employees perceive an inequity, they can be predicted to make one of

six choices:
1.
Change their inputs.
2.
Change their outcomes.
3.
Distort perceptions of self.
4.
Distort perceptions of others.
5.
Choose a different referent.
6.
Leave the field.
When employees perceive an inequity, they can be predicted to make

one of six choices: they can change their inputs; change their
outcomes; distort perceptions of self; distort perceptions of others;
choose a different referent; or they can leave the field.
7-21
LO 3
Organizational
Justice
Refinement of Equity Theory
7-22
However, organizational justice draws a bigger picture. Organizational justice is

concerned with how employees feel they are treated by authorities and decisionsmakers at work. For the most part, employees make their evaluations along four
dimensions, as shown in this exhibit.
Distributive justice is concerned with the fairness of the outcomes, such as pay and
recognition that employees receive. Although employees care a lot about what
outcomes are distributed (distributive justice), they also care a lot about how
outcomes are distributed. While distributive justice looks at what outcomes are
allocated, procedural justice examines how outcomes are allocated. Having direct
influence over how decisions or made, or at the very least being able to present your
opinion to decision makers, creates a sense of control and makes us feel empowered.
Employees also perceive that procedures are fairer when decision makers follow
several rules. It turns out that procedural and distributive justice combine to
influence peoples perceptions of fairness. If outcomes are favorable and individuals
get what they want, they care less about the process, so procedural justice doesnt
matter as much when distributions are perceived to be fair.
Research has shown that employees care about two other types of fairness that have
to do with the way they are treated during interactions with others.
The first type is informational justice, which reflects whether managers provide
employees with explanations for key decisions and keep them informed of important
organizational matters. The second type of justice relevant to interactions between
managers and employees is interpersonal justice, which reflects whether employees
are treated with dignity and
respect.
Copyright
2015 Pearson Education Ltd.
1-23
LO 3
Expectancy Theory
Expectancy theory argues that a tendency to
act in a certain way depends on an expectation
that the act will be followed by a given outcome
and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the
individual.
An employee will be motivated to exert a high
level of effort when he or she believes that:
Effort will lead to a good performance appraisal.
A good appraisal will lead to rewards.
The rewards will satisfy his or her personal
goals.
7-24
Expectancy theory is one of the most widely

accepted explanations of motivation. Victor Vrooms
expectancy theory has its critics, but most of the
research is supported. Expectancy theory argues
that the strength of ones tendency to act in a
certain way depends on the strength of the
expectation that the act will be followed by a given
outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome
to the individual. It says that an employee will be
motivated to exert a high level of effort when he or
she believes that effort will lead to a good
performance appraisal, that a good appraisal will
lead to organizational rewards, and that the rewards
will satisfy his or her personal goals.
1-25
LO 3
Expectancy Theory
Expectancy theory, therefore, focuses on three key relationships: the

effort-performance relationship, which is the probability perceived by the
individual that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to performance;
the performance-reward relationship, which is the degree to which the
individual believes that performing at a particular level will lead to the
attainment of a desired outcome; and the rewards-personal goals
relationship, which is the degree to which organizational rewards satisfy
an individuals personal goals or needs and the attractiveness of those
potential rewards for the individual.
7-26
LO 3
Expectancy Theory
Expectancy theory helps explain why a lot of workers arent motivated on their
jobs and do only the minimum necessary to get by.
Three questions employees need to answer in the affirmative if their motivation is
to be maximized:
1.
If I give maximum effort, will it be recognized in my performance appraisal?
2.
If I get a good performance appraisal, will it lead to organizational rewards?
3.
If Im rewarded, are the rewards attractive to me?
Expectancy theory helps explain why a lot of workers arent motivated

on their jobs and do only the minimum necessary to get by. We can look
at the theorys three relationships by asking three questions that
employees would need to answer affirmatively if they are to be
motivated.
First, if I give maximum effort, will it be recognized in my performance
appraisal?
Second, if I get a good performance appraisal, will it lead to
organizational rewards?
Third, if Im rewarded, are the rewards attractive to me?
7-27
LO 4
Job Characteristics Model

(JCM)
proposes that any job may be described by five core job

dimensions:
1.Skill variety is the degree to which the job requires a variety of
different activities, so the worker can use a number of different skills
and talent.
2.Task identity is he degree to which the job requires completion of a
whole and identifiable piece of work.
3.Task significance is the degree to which the job has a substantial
impact on the lives or work of other people.
4.Autonomy is the degree to which the job provides substantial
freedom, independence, and discretion to the individual in
scheduling the work and determining the procedures to be used in
carrying it out.
5.Feedback is the degree to which carrying out the work activities
required by the job results in the individual obtaining direct and
clear information about the effectiveness of his or her performance.
8-28
The Job Characteristics Model (JCM) proposes that any job may be described by five core job
dimensions:
1.Skill variety is the degree to which the job requires a variety of different activities, so the
worker can use a number of different skills and talent.
2.Task identity is he degree to which the job requires completion of a whole and identifiable
piece of work.
3.Task significance is the degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the lives or work
of other people.
4.Autonomy is the degree to which the job provides substantial freedom, independence, and
discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and determining the procedures to be
used in carrying it out.
5.Feedback is the degree to which carrying out the work activities required by the job results
in the individual obtaining direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her
performance.
.The first three dimensionsskill variety, task identity, and task significancecombine to
create meaningful work the incumbent will view as important, valuable, and worthwhile.
From a motivational standpoint, the JCM proposes that individuals obtain internal rewards
when they learn (knowledge of results) that they personally (experienced responsibility)
have performed well on a task they care about (experienced meaningfulness). Individuals
with a high growth need are more likely to experience the critical psychological states when
their jobs are enrichedand respond to them more positivelythan are their counterparts
with low growth need.
1-29
LO 4

(JCM)
8-30
LO 4

(JCM)
The core dimensions of the job characteristics model (JCM) can be combined
into a single predictive index called the motivating potential score (MPS).
Evidence supports the JCM concept that the presence of a set of job characteristics
does generate higher and more satisfying job performance.
A few studies have tested the JCM in different cultures, but the results arent very
consistent.
The core dimensions of the JCM can be combined into a single predictive
index called the motivating potential score (MPS). To be high on motivating
potential, jobs must be high on at least one of the three factors that lead to
experienced meaningfulness, and high on both autonomy and feedback. If
jobs score high on motivating potential, the model predicts that motivation,
performance, and satisfaction will improve and absence and turnover will
be reduced.
8-31
LO 4
Jobs Redesigned
Repetitive jobs provide little variety, autonomy, or motivation.

Job Rotation
Referred to as cross-training.
Periodic shifting from one task to another.
Strengths: reduces boredom, increases motivation, and helps
employees better understand their work contributions.
Weaknesses: creates disruptions, requires extra time for supervisors
addressing questions and training time, and reduced efficiencies.
People generally seek out jobs that are challenging and stimulating, but repetitive jobs provide
little variety, autonomy, or motivation. One way to make repetitive jobs more interesting is job
rotation, which is also known as cross-training. It involves periodic shifting of an employee from
one task to another. When activity is no longer challenging, the employee is shifted to a different
task.
Strengths of job rotation are that it reduces boredom, increases motivation, and helps
employees better understand their work contributions. Indirect benefits include employees with
wider ranges of skills that give management more flexibility in scheduling, adapting to changes,
and filling vacancies. Some weaknesses of job rotation include disruptions, a need for extra
time for supervisors addressing questions and training time, and reduced efficiencies.
8-32
LO 4
The Main Ways

Jobs Redesigned
Exhibit 82 shows guidelines for job enrichment. Job enrichment expands jobs by increasing the
degree to which the worker controls the planning, execution, and evaluation of the work.
The first guideline is combining tasks that puts fractionalized tasks back together to form a new
and larger module of work. Second is forming natural work units that make an employees tasks
create an identifiable and meaningful whole. Third, establishing client relationships increases the
direct relationships between workers and their clients. (Clients can be internal as well as outside
the organization.) Fourth, expanding jobs vertically gives employees responsibilities and control
formerly reserved for management. Finally, opening feedback channels lets employees know how
well they are doing and whether their performance is improving, deteriorating, or remaining
constant.
8-33
LO 4
Alternative Work Arrangements
Alternative work arrangements are also used to boost motivation. They include flextime,
defined as flexible work hours like those shown in Exhibit 8-3. This allows employees some
discretion over when they arrive at and leave work. Benefits include reduced absenteeism,
increased productivity, reduced overtime expense, reduced hostility toward management, and
increased autonomy and responsibility for employees. A major drawback is that its not
applicable to all jobs or all workers.
8-34
LO 4
Job Sharing
Two or more people split a 40-hour-a-week job.
Declining in use.
Can be difficult to find compatible pairs of employees who can
successfully coordinate the intricacies of one job.
Increases flexibility and can increase motivation and
satisfaction when a 40-hour-a-week job is just not practical.
Job sharing allows two or more individuals to split a traditional 40-hour-a-week job.
Only 12 percent of larger organizations now offer job sharing, a decline from 18
percent in 2008. Reasons it is not more widely adopted are likely the difficulty of
finding compatible partners to share a job and the historically negative perceptions
of individuals not completely committed to their job and employer. The major
drawback is finding compatible pairs of employees who can successfully coordinate
the intricacies of one job.
However, job sharing allows an organization to draw on the talents of more than one
individual in a given job. From the employees perspective, job sharing increases
flexibility and can increase motivation and satisfaction when a 40-hour-a-week job is
just not practical.
8-35
LO 4
Telecommuting
Employees who do their work at home at least two days
a week on a computer that is linked to their office.
Virtual office
Well-known
organizations
actively
encourage
telecommuting
Telecommuting refers to employees who do their work at home at least two days a week on a
computer that is linked to their office.
The U.S. Department of the Census estimated there had been a 25% increase in selfemployed, home-based workers from 1999 to 2005, and a 20% increase in employed workers
who work exclusively from home. One recent survey of nearly 500 organizations found that 57%
of organizations offered telecommuting, with 36% allowing employees to telecommute at least
part of the time and 20% allowing employees to telecommute full time those percentages have
remained relatively stable since 2008.
Well-known organizations that actively encourage telecommuting include AT&T, IBM, American
Express, Sun Microsystems, and a number of U.S. government agencies.
8-36
LO 4
Telecommuting Advantages
Larger labor pool
Higher productivity
Less turnover
Improved morale
Reduced office-space costs
There are reasons for and against telecommuting. The advantages
include a larger labor pool of workers, higher productivity, less turnover,
improved morale, and reduced office-space costs.
8-37
LO 4
Telecommuting Disadvantages
Employer
Less direct supervision of employees.
Difficult to coordinate teamwork.
Difficult to evaluate non-quantitative
performance.
Employee
May not be noticed for his or her
Disadvantages
of telecommuting for the employer include less direct
efforts.
supervision of employees, difficulty coordinating teamwork, and difficulty

evaluating non-quantitative performance. Disadvantages for the
employee include that he or she may not be as noticed for his or her
efforts.
8-38
LO 5
Employee Involvement
Employee Involvement: a participative process that uses

employees input to increase their commitment to the
organizations success.
Examples of Employee Involvement Programs
Participative management
Representative participation
Employee involvement refers to a participative process that uses
employees input to increase their commitment to the organizations
success. Two examples of such programs are participative management
and representative participation.
8-39
LO 5
Participative management
Joint decision making.
Acts as a panacea for poor morale and low productivity.
Trust and confidence in leaders is essential.
Studies of the participation-performance have yielded mixed
results.
Participative management is the first of the options for employee involvement programs.
Common to all participative management programs is joint decision making, wherein
subordinates share a significant degree of decision making power with their immediate
superiors. Participative management has, at times, been promoted as a panacea for poor
morale and low productivity. But for it to work, employees must be engaged in issues relevant to
their interests so theyll be motivated, they must have the competence and knowledge to make a
useful contribution, and trust and confidence must exist among all parties.
Studies of the participationperformance relationship have yielded mixed findings. Organizations
that institute participative management do have higher stock returns, lower turnover rates, and
higher estimated labor productivity, although these effects are typically not large. A careful
review of research at the individual level shows participation typically has only a modest
influence on employee productivity, motivation, and job satisfaction. Of course, this doesnt
mean participative management cant be beneficial under the right conditions. But it is not a sure
means for improving performance.
8-40
LO 5
Representative participation
Workers are represented by a small group of employees who
actually participate in decision making.
Almost every country in Western Europe requires
representative participation.
The two most common forms:
Works councils
Board representatives
Representative participation is spreading. Almost every country in Western Europe has some
type of legislation requiring it. It is the most widely legislated form of employee involvement
around the world. The goal is to redistribute power within an organization, putting labor on a
more equal footing with the interests of management and stockholders.
The two most common forms include works councils that link employees with management.
They are groups of nominated or elected employees who must be consulted when
management makes decisions involving personnel. Second is board representatives, who are
employees who sit on a companys board of directors and represent the interests of the firms
employees. The overall influence of representative participation seems to be minimal. The
evidence suggests that works councils are dominated by management and have little impact
on employees or the organization. If one were interested in changing employee attitudes or in
improving organizational performance, representative participation would be a poor choice.
8-41
Implications for Managers

Recognize individual differences.
Spend the time necessary to understand whats important to each

employee.
Design jobs to align with individual needs and maximize their

motivation potential.
Use goals and feedback.
You should give employees firm, specific goals, and they should get
feedback on how well they are faring in pursuit of those goals.
The study of what motivates individuals is ultimately key to organizational performance.
Employees whose differences are recognized, who feel valued, and who have the opportunity to
work in jobs that are tailored to their strengths and interests will be motivated to perform at the
highest levels. Employee participation also can increase employee productivity, commitment to
work goals, motivation, and job satisfaction.
Managers should:
Recognize individual differences. Spend the time necessary to understand whats important to
each employee. Design jobs to align with individual needs and maximize their motivation
potential.
Use goals and feedback. You should give employees firm, specific goals, and they should get
feedback on how well they are faring in pursuit of those goals.
8-42
Allow employees to participate in decisions that affect them.

Employees can contribute to setting work goals, choosing their
own benefits packages, and solving productivity and quality
problems.
Link rewards to performance.
Rewards should be contingent on performance, and employees
must perceive the link between the two.
Check the system for equity.
Employees should perceive that experience, skills, abilities,
effort, and other obvious inputs explain differences in
performance and hence in pay, job assignments, and other
obvious rewards.
8-43

Make sure extrinsic rewards for employees are not viewed
as coercive, but instead provide information about
competence and relatedness.
Consider goal-setting theory, as clear and difficult goals
often lead to higher levels of employee productivity.
The motivation theories in this chapter differ in their predictive strength. Maslows hierarchy,
McClellands needs, and the two-factor theory focus on needs. None has found widespread
support, although McClellands is the strongest, particularly regarding the relationship between
achievement and productivity. Self-determination theory and cognitive evaluation theory have
merits to consider. Goal-setting theory can be helpful, but does not cover absenteeism,
turnover, or job satisfaction. Reinforcement theory can be helpful, but not regarding employee
satisfaction or the decision to quit. Equity theorys strongest legacy is that it provided the spark
for research on organizational justice, which has more support in the literature. Expectancy
theory can be helpful, but assumes employees have few constraints on decision making, such
as bias or incomplete information, and this limits its applicability.
For managers, it is important to make sure extrinsic rewards for employees are not viewed as
coercive, but instead provide information about competence and relatedness. Managers
should also consider goal-setting theory, as clear and difficult goals often lead to higher levels
of employee productivity.
7-44

Consider reinforcement theory regarding quality and
quantity of work, persistence of effort, absenteeism,
tardiness, and accident rates.
Consult equity theory to help understand productivity,
satisfaction, absence, and turnover variables.
Expectancy theory also offers a powerful explanation of
performance variables such as employee productivity,
absenteeism, and turnover.
In addition, managers should consider reinforcement theory regarding
quality and quantity of work, persistence of effort, absenteeism, tardiness,
and accident rates. Managers should also consult equity theory to help
understand productivity, satisfaction, absence, and turnover variables.
Finally, managers need to recognize that expectancy theory also offers a
powerful explanation of performance variables such as employee
productivity, absenteeism, and turnover.
7-45

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Topic 4:

Motivation is the processes that account

The three key elements of motivation are:

Early Theories of Motivation

Abraham Maslows hierarchy of needs is the most well-known

need becomes substantially satisfied, the next need becomes

Early Theories of Motivation

Theory X and Theory Y

Douglas McGregors Theory X and Theory Y

Having Little Ambition

Managers See Workers As

Douglas McGregor said that managers hold one of two sets of

Copyright 2015 Pearson Education Ltd.

Evaluate the Applicability of

Proposed by psychologist Frederick Herzberg when he

Copyright 2015 Pearson Education Ltd.

Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory

Bottom Line: Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction are

Motivation Factors--Intrinsic and Related to

Copyright 2015 Pearson Education Ltd.

Early Theories of Motivation

In the late 1960s, Edwin Lockes goal-setting theory proposed that

Self-efficacy theory, also as social cognitive theory and social learning

Goal-setting theory and self-efficacy theory dont compete with one

Implications of self-efficacy theory:

Copyright 2015 Pearson Education Ltd.

When employees perceive an inequity, they can be predicted to make one of

When employees perceive an inequity, they can be predicted to make

However, organizational justice draws a bigger picture. Organizational justice is

Expectancy theory is one of the most widely

Expectancy theory, therefore, focuses on three key relationships: the

Expectancy theory helps explain why a lot of workers arent motivated

Job Characteristics Model

proposes that any job may be described by five core job

Job Characteristics Model

Job Characteristics Model

Repetitive jobs provide little variety, autonomy, or motivation.

The Main Ways

Copyright 2015 Pearson Education Ltd.

Alternative Work Arrangements

Alternative Work Arrangements

Alternative Work Arrangements

Copyright 2015 Pearson Education Ltd.

Alternative Work Arrangements

Alternative Work Arrangements

supervision of employees, difficulty coordinating teamwork, and difficulty

Employee Involvement: a participative process that uses

Implications for Managers

Spend the time necessary to understand whats important to each

Design jobs to align with individual needs and maximize their

Implications for Managers

Allow employees to participate in decisions that affect them.

Implications for Managers

Implications for Managers

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