You are on page 1of 49

CHAPTER 5

Toxic Release
and
Dispersion Models

Chapter Information

Chapter Outline

Instructional
Learning
Objectives

Introduction
Neutrally Buoyant Dispersion
Models
Pasquill-Gifford Model
Toxic Effect Criteria
Release Mitigation
After completing this chapter,
students should be able to do the
following:
Identify release incident
Develop source model to describe
how materials are released and
rate of release
Estimate downwind
concentrations of toxic material
using dispersion model
2

Introduction Dispersion Model


Dispersion models describe the airborne transport of toxic
materials away from the accident site and into the plant
and community.
After a release, the airborne toxic is carried away by the
wind in a characteristic plume or a puff

The maximum concentration of toxic material occurs at


the release point (which may not be at ground level).
Concentrations downwind are less, due to turbulent
mixing and dispersion of the toxic substance with air.3

Introduction

Figure 1

Characteristic plume formed by a continuous

release of material.

Introduction

Figure 2

Puff formed by near instantaneous

release of material.

Factors Influencing Dispersion


Parameters affecting atmospheric dispersion:
Wind speed
As the wind speed increases, the plume becomes longer and
narrower

Atmospheric stability
During the day the air temperature decreases rapidly with the
height, encouraging vertical motions . Oppositely, at night the
air temperature decrease is less
Classified to three stability classes: unstable, neutral, stable
Unstable the sun heats the ground faster than the heat can
be removed so that the air temperature near the ground is
higher than the temperature at higher elevation
Neutral the air above the ground warms and the wind speed
increases
Stable the sun cannot heat the ground as fast as the ground
cools; the air of higher density is below air of lower density
6

Factors Influencing Dispersion


Parameters affecting atmospheric dispersion:
Ground conditions (buildings, water, trees)
Affect the mechanical mixing at the surface and the
wind profile with height
Trees and buildings increase mixing while lakes and open
areas decrease mixing

Height of release above ground level


As the release height increases, the ground level
concentrations are reduced since the plume must
disperse a greater distance vertically

Momentum and buoyancy of initial material


released
Change the effective height of the release.
The momentum of a high-velocity jet will carry the gas
higher than the point of release, resulting much higher
effective release height.
7

Effect of Ground
Conditions

Figure4Effectofgroundconditionsonverticalwindgradient.

Effect of Release
Height

Figure 5 Increased release height decreases the ground


concentration.
9

Effect of Momentum and


Buoyancy

Figure 6 The initial acceleration and buoyancy of the released


material affects the plume character. The dispersion models
discussedinthischapterrepresentonlyambientturbulence.
10

Pasquill-Gifford Models

Cases 1 10 all depend on the availability


of Kj

Kj changes with position, time, wind velocity,


and weather conditions. It is difficult to get
the experimental value of Kj

Alternative solution was suggested by


Sutton by using a dispersion coefficient
1
2 n
C 2 ut
2
2
x

Similar expressions given for y and z


11

Pasquill-Gifford Models

Values for the are a function of atmospheric


conditions and the distance downwind from the
release
The atmospheric conditions are classified
according to six different stability classes as
shown in Table 5-1.
The y and z for continuous source are given
in Table 5-2 or alternatively available in Figure
5-10 and 5-11.
x can be assumed as equal to y
12

Pasquill-Gifford Models
Table51AtmosphericStabilityClassesforUsewiththe
PasquillGiffordDispersionModel(Crowl&Louvar,pg197)

A : Extremely unstable
B : Moderately unstable
C : Slightly unstable

D : Neutrally stable
E : Slightly stable
F : Moderately stable
13

Pasquill-Gifford Models

(Crowl&Louvar,pg198)
14

Pasquill-Gifford Models

The y and z for a puff release are given in Table 5-3 (Crowl &
Louvar, pg 199).

15

Pasquill-Gifford Models

Limitations to Pasquill-Gifford Model or Gaussian dispersion


Applies only to neutrally buoyant dispersion of gases in
which the turbulent mixing is the dominant feature of the
dispersion.
Typically valid for a distance of 0.1-10 km from the
release point.
The predicted concentrations are time average.
It is possible for instantaneous local concentrations to
exceed the average values predicted and may vary as
much as a factor of 2 compared to Gaussian models
The models presented here assumed 10-minute time
average

16

Pasquill-Gifford Models
Case 11: Puff with instantaneous point source at ground
level, coordinates fixed at release point, constant wind
only in x direction with constant velocity u

Identical to case 7
C x, y , z , t

*
m
3/ 2

x y z

Ground level concentration is given at z = 0

Q
1 x ut
y 2
2
C x, y,0, t
exp

y
2 x y z
2 x

*
m
3/ 2

exp

1 x ut
y 2 z 2
2 2

2 x
y z

Ground level concentration along the x-axis, y = z = 0

C x,0,0, t

1 x ut

exp
x y z
2 x

*
m
3/ 2

17

Pasquill-Gifford Models
Case 11

The center of the cloud is found at coordinates (ut,0,0)

Qm*
C ut ,0,0, t
3/ 2
2 x y z

The total integrated dose received by individual standing


at ground level (fixed coordinates)
1 y2
Qm*

Dtid x, y,0
exp
2
2
x y u
y

The total integrated dose along the x axis on the ground

Qm*
Dtid x,0,0
x y u
18

Pasquill-Gifford Models
Case 12: Plume with continuous steady-state source
at ground level and wind moving in x direction at
constant velocity u
Identical to case 9
Qm
C x, y , z
exp
x y u

1 y 2
z 2
2 2
2 y z

Ground-level concentration, z = 0

y
Qm
1

C x , y ,0
exp

x y u
2 y

Concentration along the centerline of the plume directly


downwind , y = z = 0
C x,0,0

Qm
x y u
19

Pasquill-Gifford Models
Case 13: Plume with Continuous steady-state source
at height Hr above ground level and wind moving in x
direction at constant velocity u

Identical to case 10

Qm
C x, y , z
exp
2 y z u

1 z Hr
exp
2 z

1 y

2 y

1 z Hr
exp
2 z

Ground level concentration, z = 0


C x , y ,0

1 y
1 H r

2 y
2 z

Qm
exp
y z u

20

Pasquill-Gifford Models
Case 13

Ground level centerline concentration, y = z = 0

Qm
1 H r

C x,0,0
exp
2 z
y z u

Maximum ground level concentration along the x-axis

max

2Qm

e u H r2

The distance downwind at which the max ground level


occurs

Hr
z
2
21

Pasquill-Gifford Models
Case 14: Puff with instantaneous point source at
height Hr above ground level and a coordinate system
on the ground that moves with the puff

The center of the puff is found at x = u t.

1 y

C x, y , z , t
exp
3/ 2
2 y
2 x y z

*
m

1 z Hr
exp
2
z

1 z Hr
exp
2
z

Ground level concentration, z = 0


C x, y ,0, t

*
m

Q

exp
2
2 3 / 2 x y z

y
y

1 Hr


2 z

22

Pasquill-Gifford Models
Case 14

Ground level centerline concentration, y = z = 0

Q
1
H
r
C x,0,0, t
exp
2 z
2 3 / 2 x y z

*
m

The total integrated dose at ground level

Dtid x, y,0

1 y
1 H r

2 y
2 z

*
m

Q
exp
y z u

23

Pasquill-Gifford Models
Case 15: Puff with instantaneous point source at
height Hr above ground level and a coordinate system
fixed on the ground at the release point

The center of the puff is found at x = u t.

*
m

C x, y , z , t
exp
2 3 / 2 x y z

1 z Hr
exp
2 z

1 y

2 y

1 z Hr
exp
2 z

2
1 x ut

exp
2 x

Ground level concentration, z = 0

1 x ut
1 y
1 H r

exp

2 y
2 z
2 x

*
m

C x, y,0, t
exp

2 3 / 2 x y z

24

Pasquill-Gifford Models
Case 15

Ground level centerline concentration, y = z = 0

1 x ut

Q
1
H
r exp

exp

3/ 2

2 x
2 z
2 x y z

C x,0,0, t

*
m

25

Example
Onanovercastday,astackwithaneffectiveheightof60meters
isreleasingsulfurdioxideattherateof80gramspersecond.
Thewindspeedis6meterspersecond.
Determine
a. ThemeanconcentrationofSO2ontheground500meters
downwind.
b. Themeanconcentrationontheground500metersdownwind
and50meterscrosswind.
c. Thelocationandvalueofthemaximummeanconcentrationon
groundleveldirectlydownwind.

Solution
a. Thisisacontinuousrelease.Thegroundconcentrationdirectly
downwindis:

Qm
1 Hr

C x,0,0
exp
y z u
2 z
2

FromTable2,thestabilityclassisD.thedispersioncoefficientsare
obtainedfromFigures10and11.Theresultingvaluesare y=36
metersandz=18.5meters.Substitutingintotheaboveequation
1 60 m
80 gm s
C 500 m,0,0
exp

3.14 36 m 18.5 m 6 m s 2 18.5 m


3.31 10 5 gm m 3

Solution
b. Themeanconcentration50meterscrosswindisfoundusingthe
below equation and setting y = 50. The results from part a are
applieddirectly,

y
1

C 500 m,50 m,0 C 500 m,0,0 exp

2 y

1 50 m
5
3
3.31 10 gm m exp

2 36 m
1.26 10 5 gm m3

Solution
c. Thelocationofthemaximumconcentrationisfoundby:

Hr
2

60 m
2

42.4 m

From Figure 11, the dispersion coefficient has this value at x =


1500 m. At x = 1500 m, from Figure 10, y = 100 m. The
maximumconcentrationisdeterminedusingEquation52,
C

max

2Qm z

e u H r2 y

2 80 gm s
42.4 m

2
2.72 3.14 6 m s 60 m 100 m
3.68 10 4 gm m3

Example
Chlorine is used in a particular chemical process. A source model study
indicates that for a particular accident scenario 1.0 kg of chlorine will be
released instantaneously. The release will occur at ground level. A
residential area is 500 m away from the chlorine source. Determine
a. The time required for the centre of the cloud to reach the residential
area. Assume a wind speed of 2 m/s.
b. The maximum concentration of chlorine in the residential area.
Compare this with a TLV for chlorine of 0.5 ppm. What stability conditions
and wind speed procedures the maximum concentration?
c. Determine the distance the cloud must travel to disperse the cloud to a
maximum concentration below the TLV. Use the conditions of Part b.
d. Determine the size of the cloud, based on the TLV, at a point 5 km
directly downwind on the ground. Assume the conditions of Part b.

Solution
a. For a distance of 500 m and a wind speed of 2 m/s, the
timerequiredforthecentreofthecloudtoreachtheresidential
areais
t

x 500 m

250 s 4.2 min


u 2ms

Thisleavesverylittletimeforemergencywarning.

Solution
b. The maximum concentration will occur at the centre of the
clouddirectlydownwindfromtherelease.Theconcentrationis:
C ut ,0,0, t

Qm*

2 3 2 x y z
Thestabilityconditionsareselectedtomaximize<C>intheabove
equation. This requires dispersion coefficients of minimum value.
FromFigures12and13,thisoccursunderstablecondition.From
Table2,thiswilloccuratnightwitha23m/swind.

Solution
Assumeaslowmovingcloudof2m/s.fromFigures12and13,at
500m,y=5.2mandz=2.2m.alsoassumex=y.

1.0 kg
2 3.14

32

5.2 m 2.2 m
2

2.14 10

kg m

2140 mg m3
Assuming a pressure of 1 atm and a temperature of 298K, the
concentrationinppmis737ppm.ThisismuchhigherthantheTLV
of0.5ppm.Anyindividualswithintheimmediateresidentialarea,
and any personnel within the plant will be excessively exposed if
theyareoutsideanddownwindfromthesource.

Solution
c. FromTable28,theTLVof0.5ppmis1.45mg/mor1.4510
6
kg/m.Theconcentrationatthecentreofthecloudisgivenbythe
equationbelow.Substitutingtheknownvalues,
1.45 10 6 kg m 3

1.0 kg

2 3.14

32

y2 z

y2 z 8.76 10 4 m 3
This equation is satisfied at the correct distance from the release
point.Atrialanderrorprocedureisrequired.Theprocedureis
1. Selectadistance,x.
2. Determinex,y,andzusingFigures12and13.
3. Checkifdispersioncoefficientssatisfyaboveequation.

Solution
The procedure is continued until the equation is satisfied. This
producesthefollowingresults,
Guessed
distance (km)
1
10
11

y z

10
80
88

3.2
12.0
13.0

3.2 10
8.07 104
1.01 105

The distance is interpolated to about 10.3 km. This is quite a


substantial distance considering that only 1.0 kg of chlorine is
released.

Solution
d. Thedownwindcentrelineconcentrationis:
2
*

Qm
1 x ut

C x,0,0, t
exp
32
2 x y z
2 x
Thetimerequiredforthecentreoftheplumetoarriveis

x 5000 m
t
2500 s
u
2ms
Atadownwinddistanceof5km,fromFigures12and13,

y x 44 m and z 8 m
Substitutingthenumbersprovided,

1.45 10 6 kg m 3

2
1 x 5000
exp

2
32
2 44 m 8 m
2 44 m

1.0 kg

Solution
where x has units of meters. Rearranging and combining leads to a
quadratic equation,

x 2 10000 x 2.49938 10 7 0
x 5000 82 m
The cloud is 164 meters wide at this point, based on the TLV
concentration. At 2 m/s, it will take approximately,

164 m
82 s
2ms
to pass.
An appropriate emergency procedure would be to alert residents to
stay indoors with the windows closed and ventilation off until the
cloud passes. An effort by the plant to reduce the quantity of
chlorine released is also indicated.

Toxic Effect Criteria

The dispersion calculation are completed & hence: What


concentration is considered dangerous?

TLV-TWA is for worker exposures, and not design for


short- term exposures under emergency conditions.

Recommended method by Environmental Protection


Agency (EPA) is by using emergency response planning
guidelines (ERPGs) for air contaminants issued by the
American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA)

Three concentration ranges are provided as a


consequence of exposure to a specific substance:

38

Toxic Effect Criteria

ERPG-1 is the maximum airborne concentration below which it is


believed nearly all individuals could be exposed for up to 1 hr
without experiencing effects other than mild transient adverse
health effects or perceiving a clearly defined objectionable odor.

ERPG-2 is the maximum airborne concentration below which it is


believed nearly all individuals could be exposed for up to 1 hr
without experiencing or developing irreversible or other serious
health effects or symptoms that could impair their abilities to take
protective action.

ERPG-3 is the maximum airborne concentration below which it is


believed nearly all individuals could be exposed for up to 1 hr
without experiencing or developing life-threatening health effects.

39

Toxic Effect Criteria

Examples of ERPGs in unit ppm

ERPG-1
Acetaldehyde 10
Acrolein
0.1
Vinyl Acetate 5

ERPG-2 ERPG-1
200
1000
0.5
3
75
500

40

Realistic and Worst-Case


Releases
Realistic releases represent the incident
outcomes with a high probability of occurring
Worst-case releases are those that assume
almost catastrophic failure of the process,
resulting in near instantaneous release of the
entire process inventory or release over a short
period of time
The worst-case releases must be used to
determine the consequences study required by
EPA Risk Management Plan
Table 4-5 lists a number of realistic and worstcase releases.
41

Realistic and Worst-Case


Releases

42

Realistic and Worst-Case


Releases

43

Release Mitigation

Thepurposeofthetoxicreleasemodelistoprovideatoolfor
performingreleasemitigation.
Releasemitigationisdefinedaslesseningtheriskofarelease
incidentbyactingonthesource(atthepointofrelease)either:
1. inapreventivewaybyreducingthelikelihoodofanevent
whichcouldgenerateahazardousvapourcloud;or
2. inaprotectivewaybyreducingthemagnitudeoftherelease
and/ortheexposureoflocalpersonsorproperty.

Release Mitigation
Thereleasemitigationdesignprocedureisshownasbelow:

Release Mitigation
Best:preventtheaccidentleadingtotherelease.
Intheeventofanaccident.Releasemitigationinvolves
1.Detectingthereleaseasquicklyaspossible;
2.Stoppingthereleaseasquicklyaspossible;and
3. Invoking a mitigation procedure to reduce the impact of the
releaseonthesurroundings.
Once a release is in vapour form, the resulting cloud is nearly
impossibletocontrol.Thus,anemergencyproceduremuststriveto
reducetheamountofvapourformed.
Table4providesadditionalmethodsanddetailonreleasemitigation
techniques.

Release Mitigation
Table 4 Release mitigation approaches

Release Mitigation

Release Mitigation

You might also like