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Toxic Release
and
Dispersion Models
Chapter Information
Chapter Outline
Instructional
Learning
Objectives
Introduction
Neutrally Buoyant Dispersion
Models
Pasquill-Gifford Model
Toxic Effect Criteria
Release Mitigation
After completing this chapter,
students should be able to do the
following:
Identify release incident
Develop source model to describe
how materials are released and
rate of release
Estimate downwind
concentrations of toxic material
using dispersion model
2
Introduction
Figure 1
release of material.
Introduction
Figure 2
release of material.
Atmospheric stability
During the day the air temperature decreases rapidly with the
height, encouraging vertical motions . Oppositely, at night the
air temperature decrease is less
Classified to three stability classes: unstable, neutral, stable
Unstable the sun heats the ground faster than the heat can
be removed so that the air temperature near the ground is
higher than the temperature at higher elevation
Neutral the air above the ground warms and the wind speed
increases
Stable the sun cannot heat the ground as fast as the ground
cools; the air of higher density is below air of lower density
6
Effect of Ground
Conditions
Figure4Effectofgroundconditionsonverticalwindgradient.
Effect of Release
Height
Pasquill-Gifford Models
Pasquill-Gifford Models
Pasquill-Gifford Models
Table51AtmosphericStabilityClassesforUsewiththe
PasquillGiffordDispersionModel(Crowl&Louvar,pg197)
A : Extremely unstable
B : Moderately unstable
C : Slightly unstable
D : Neutrally stable
E : Slightly stable
F : Moderately stable
13
Pasquill-Gifford Models
(Crowl&Louvar,pg198)
14
Pasquill-Gifford Models
The y and z for a puff release are given in Table 5-3 (Crowl &
Louvar, pg 199).
15
Pasquill-Gifford Models
16
Pasquill-Gifford Models
Case 11: Puff with instantaneous point source at ground
level, coordinates fixed at release point, constant wind
only in x direction with constant velocity u
Identical to case 7
C x, y , z , t
*
m
3/ 2
x y z
Q
1 x ut
y 2
2
C x, y,0, t
exp
y
2 x y z
2 x
*
m
3/ 2
exp
1 x ut
y 2 z 2
2 2
2 x
y z
C x,0,0, t
1 x ut
exp
x y z
2 x
*
m
3/ 2
17
Pasquill-Gifford Models
Case 11
Qm*
C ut ,0,0, t
3/ 2
2 x y z
Dtid x, y,0
exp
2
2
x y u
y
Qm*
Dtid x,0,0
x y u
18
Pasquill-Gifford Models
Case 12: Plume with continuous steady-state source
at ground level and wind moving in x direction at
constant velocity u
Identical to case 9
Qm
C x, y , z
exp
x y u
1 y 2
z 2
2 2
2 y z
Ground-level concentration, z = 0
y
Qm
1
C x , y ,0
exp
x y u
2 y
Qm
x y u
19
Pasquill-Gifford Models
Case 13: Plume with Continuous steady-state source
at height Hr above ground level and wind moving in x
direction at constant velocity u
Identical to case 10
Qm
C x, y , z
exp
2 y z u
1 z Hr
exp
2 z
1 y
2 y
1 z Hr
exp
2 z
1 y
1 H r
2 y
2 z
Qm
exp
y z u
20
Pasquill-Gifford Models
Case 13
Qm
1 H r
C x,0,0
exp
2 z
y z u
max
2Qm
e u H r2
Hr
z
2
21
Pasquill-Gifford Models
Case 14: Puff with instantaneous point source at
height Hr above ground level and a coordinate system
on the ground that moves with the puff
1 y
C x, y , z , t
exp
3/ 2
2 y
2 x y z
*
m
1 z Hr
exp
2
z
1 z Hr
exp
2
z
*
m
Q
exp
2
2 3 / 2 x y z
y
y
1 Hr
2 z
22
Pasquill-Gifford Models
Case 14
Q
1
H
r
C x,0,0, t
exp
2 z
2 3 / 2 x y z
*
m
Dtid x, y,0
1 y
1 H r
2 y
2 z
*
m
Q
exp
y z u
23
Pasquill-Gifford Models
Case 15: Puff with instantaneous point source at
height Hr above ground level and a coordinate system
fixed on the ground at the release point
*
m
C x, y , z , t
exp
2 3 / 2 x y z
1 z Hr
exp
2 z
1 y
2 y
1 z Hr
exp
2 z
2
1 x ut
exp
2 x
1 x ut
1 y
1 H r
exp
2 y
2 z
2 x
*
m
C x, y,0, t
exp
2 3 / 2 x y z
24
Pasquill-Gifford Models
Case 15
1 x ut
Q
1
H
r exp
exp
3/ 2
2 x
2 z
2 x y z
C x,0,0, t
*
m
25
Example
Onanovercastday,astackwithaneffectiveheightof60meters
isreleasingsulfurdioxideattherateof80gramspersecond.
Thewindspeedis6meterspersecond.
Determine
a. ThemeanconcentrationofSO2ontheground500meters
downwind.
b. Themeanconcentrationontheground500metersdownwind
and50meterscrosswind.
c. Thelocationandvalueofthemaximummeanconcentrationon
groundleveldirectlydownwind.
Solution
a. Thisisacontinuousrelease.Thegroundconcentrationdirectly
downwindis:
Qm
1 Hr
C x,0,0
exp
y z u
2 z
2
FromTable2,thestabilityclassisD.thedispersioncoefficientsare
obtainedfromFigures10and11.Theresultingvaluesare y=36
metersandz=18.5meters.Substitutingintotheaboveequation
1 60 m
80 gm s
C 500 m,0,0
exp
Solution
b. Themeanconcentration50meterscrosswindisfoundusingthe
below equation and setting y = 50. The results from part a are
applieddirectly,
y
1
C 500 m,50 m,0 C 500 m,0,0 exp
2 y
1 50 m
5
3
3.31 10 gm m exp
2 36 m
1.26 10 5 gm m3
Solution
c. Thelocationofthemaximumconcentrationisfoundby:
Hr
2
60 m
2
42.4 m
max
2Qm z
e u H r2 y
2 80 gm s
42.4 m
2
2.72 3.14 6 m s 60 m 100 m
3.68 10 4 gm m3
Example
Chlorine is used in a particular chemical process. A source model study
indicates that for a particular accident scenario 1.0 kg of chlorine will be
released instantaneously. The release will occur at ground level. A
residential area is 500 m away from the chlorine source. Determine
a. The time required for the centre of the cloud to reach the residential
area. Assume a wind speed of 2 m/s.
b. The maximum concentration of chlorine in the residential area.
Compare this with a TLV for chlorine of 0.5 ppm. What stability conditions
and wind speed procedures the maximum concentration?
c. Determine the distance the cloud must travel to disperse the cloud to a
maximum concentration below the TLV. Use the conditions of Part b.
d. Determine the size of the cloud, based on the TLV, at a point 5 km
directly downwind on the ground. Assume the conditions of Part b.
Solution
a. For a distance of 500 m and a wind speed of 2 m/s, the
timerequiredforthecentreofthecloudtoreachtheresidential
areais
t
x 500 m
Thisleavesverylittletimeforemergencywarning.
Solution
b. The maximum concentration will occur at the centre of the
clouddirectlydownwindfromtherelease.Theconcentrationis:
C ut ,0,0, t
Qm*
2 3 2 x y z
Thestabilityconditionsareselectedtomaximize<C>intheabove
equation. This requires dispersion coefficients of minimum value.
FromFigures12and13,thisoccursunderstablecondition.From
Table2,thiswilloccuratnightwitha23m/swind.
Solution
Assumeaslowmovingcloudof2m/s.fromFigures12and13,at
500m,y=5.2mandz=2.2m.alsoassumex=y.
1.0 kg
2 3.14
32
5.2 m 2.2 m
2
2.14 10
kg m
2140 mg m3
Assuming a pressure of 1 atm and a temperature of 298K, the
concentrationinppmis737ppm.ThisismuchhigherthantheTLV
of0.5ppm.Anyindividualswithintheimmediateresidentialarea,
and any personnel within the plant will be excessively exposed if
theyareoutsideanddownwindfromthesource.
Solution
c. FromTable28,theTLVof0.5ppmis1.45mg/mor1.4510
6
kg/m.Theconcentrationatthecentreofthecloudisgivenbythe
equationbelow.Substitutingtheknownvalues,
1.45 10 6 kg m 3
1.0 kg
2 3.14
32
y2 z
y2 z 8.76 10 4 m 3
This equation is satisfied at the correct distance from the release
point.Atrialanderrorprocedureisrequired.Theprocedureis
1. Selectadistance,x.
2. Determinex,y,andzusingFigures12and13.
3. Checkifdispersioncoefficientssatisfyaboveequation.
Solution
The procedure is continued until the equation is satisfied. This
producesthefollowingresults,
Guessed
distance (km)
1
10
11
y z
10
80
88
3.2
12.0
13.0
3.2 10
8.07 104
1.01 105
Solution
d. Thedownwindcentrelineconcentrationis:
2
*
Qm
1 x ut
C x,0,0, t
exp
32
2 x y z
2 x
Thetimerequiredforthecentreoftheplumetoarriveis
x 5000 m
t
2500 s
u
2ms
Atadownwinddistanceof5km,fromFigures12and13,
y x 44 m and z 8 m
Substitutingthenumbersprovided,
1.45 10 6 kg m 3
2
1 x 5000
exp
2
32
2 44 m 8 m
2 44 m
1.0 kg
Solution
where x has units of meters. Rearranging and combining leads to a
quadratic equation,
x 2 10000 x 2.49938 10 7 0
x 5000 82 m
The cloud is 164 meters wide at this point, based on the TLV
concentration. At 2 m/s, it will take approximately,
164 m
82 s
2ms
to pass.
An appropriate emergency procedure would be to alert residents to
stay indoors with the windows closed and ventilation off until the
cloud passes. An effort by the plant to reduce the quantity of
chlorine released is also indicated.
38
39
ERPG-1
Acetaldehyde 10
Acrolein
0.1
Vinyl Acetate 5
ERPG-2 ERPG-1
200
1000
0.5
3
75
500
40
42
43
Release Mitigation
Thepurposeofthetoxicreleasemodelistoprovideatoolfor
performingreleasemitigation.
Releasemitigationisdefinedaslesseningtheriskofarelease
incidentbyactingonthesource(atthepointofrelease)either:
1. inapreventivewaybyreducingthelikelihoodofanevent
whichcouldgenerateahazardousvapourcloud;or
2. inaprotectivewaybyreducingthemagnitudeoftherelease
and/ortheexposureoflocalpersonsorproperty.
Release Mitigation
Thereleasemitigationdesignprocedureisshownasbelow:
Release Mitigation
Best:preventtheaccidentleadingtotherelease.
Intheeventofanaccident.Releasemitigationinvolves
1.Detectingthereleaseasquicklyaspossible;
2.Stoppingthereleaseasquicklyaspossible;and
3. Invoking a mitigation procedure to reduce the impact of the
releaseonthesurroundings.
Once a release is in vapour form, the resulting cloud is nearly
impossibletocontrol.Thus,anemergencyproceduremuststriveto
reducetheamountofvapourformed.
Table4providesadditionalmethodsanddetailonreleasemitigation
techniques.
Release Mitigation
Table 4 Release mitigation approaches
Release Mitigation
Release Mitigation