Introduction To C: Embedded Wireless Telecom

INTRODUCTION TO C
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Table of Contents
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Introduction to C
A simple C program
Basic data types
Variables
Operators
Control flow
Arrays and pointers
Functions
Structures and Union
Files
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www.globaledgesoft.com
Introdunction to C
C is a middle level language that was
originally developed by Dennis Ritchie .
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It combines the best elements of high

level languages with the control and
flexibility of assembly languages.
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C is a structured programming language.
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A simple C program
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#include<stdio.h>
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int main()
{
printf(\nHello, World);
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BASIC DATA TYPES
short int
Int
long int
unsigned long
int
-32,768(-215)
32,767(215-1)
65,535(216-1)
-2,147,483,648(-231)
2,147,483,648(231-1)
4,294,967,295
-2,147,483,648(-231)
2,147,483,648(231-1)
4,294,967,295
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unsigned int
Largest Value
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unsigned
short int
Smallest Value
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Type (32 bit)
BASIC DATA TYPES(CONTD..)
char
Smallest Value
Largest Value
-128
127
-3.4E +38
3.4E+38
double
-1.7E+308
1.7E+308
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float
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Type (32 bit)
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Variables
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The general form of declaring a variable

is,
Datatype variable_list;
Eg:
int var; //declaration
var = 5;//assignment
int var = 5; //initialization
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All variables must be declared before use.
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Variable is a named location in memory

that is used to hold a value.
Operators
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Arithmetic operators
Relational and Logical operators
Bitwise operators
Increment and Decrement operators
Conditional operators
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Control Flow
Iteration statements
while (expr) stmt;
for (expr1;expr2;expr3) stmt;
do stmt while expr;
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Selection statements
if (expr) stmt;
if (expr) stmt1 else stmt2;
switch (expr) {case ... default }
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Array and Pointer
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Pointers:
A pointer is a variable that holds the
address of another variable.
Eg: int *ptr; //declaring a pointer variable
Int *ptr = &a; // initialization
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Array:
An array is a collection of variables of
the same type that are referred through a
common name.
syntax:datatype var_name[size];
Functions
Building blocks of c .
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The general form of a function is

return type fun_name(parameter list)
{
body of the function
}
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The place where all the program activity

occurs.
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Structure and Union
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Union:
A union is a memory location that is
shared by different types of variables.
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Structures:
Structure is a collection of same or
different data type, grouped together in a
single name for
convenient handling.
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Files
Files must be opened before being

accessed.
For files you want to read or write, you

need a file pointer,
Eg: FILE *fp;
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A file is viewed as a stream of bytes.
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Data Types and

Expressions
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Table of Contents
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Introduction
Data Types in C
Built-in Data Types
Derived Data Types
Expression
Assignment Operator and Expression
Conditional Expression
Storage class
Introduction
we used in our program and tells the
compiler how many bytes of memory to
be allocated for the variable
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Example : int a;
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Syntax : <Data type> <variable name>
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Data Types specifies what type of data
Data Types in C
1)Built-in data types
2)Derived data types
These are data types which are

predefined that cannot be modified
By using built-in data type collection

we can derive a new data type
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Derived data types
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Built-in data types
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In C we have two kind of Data types
Built-in Data Type

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Built-in Data type in C contains
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nt :
size 2 or 4 bytes
Char : size 1 Byte
Unsigned int :size 2 or 4 Bytes
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Built-in Data Type(cont)
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2 bytes
range -32,768 to 32,767 or
0 to 65,535(unsigned)
Float : size 4 bytes
range 1.2E-38 to 3.4E+38
precision 6 decimal places
Double : size 8 bytes
range 2.3E-308 to 1.7E+308
Long Double : size 10 bytes
range 3.4E-4932 to 1.1E+4932
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Short : size
Derived Data types
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struct structname
{
Variables
}structure object;
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Syntax
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Array : it is a collection of homogeneous

elements of given data type
Example: int a[10]; A[] is array subscript
Structure : it is collection of heterogeneous
elements of all basic data types. it
allocates memory for all data types inside
a structure
Derived Data types(cont)
variable. Size is 4 bytes
Example
int *p;
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Pointer : It only contains the address of another
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elements but it allocates memory for only a data

type that has highest memory
Syntax union unionname
{
Variables
}union object;
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Union :it is also collection of heterogeneous
Expression
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variables, constant and operators written

according to the syntax of C language
Example : a * b c
Expression is evaluated in assignment
statement form
Variable = Expression
d=a*bc
Expression will be evaluated based on
precedence of operator
Highest priority = * / %
Lowest priority = + -
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An expression is a combination of
Conditional Expression
evaluated
expr1 ? expr2 : expr3
Example
z = (a > b) ? a : b;
evaluated
else expression 3 will be evaluated
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If expression 1 is true expression 2 will be
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Syntax
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Based on condition expression will be
Storage class
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Topics :
Automatic variables
External variables
Static variables
Register variables
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Auto
Auto declare inside a function in which
they are to be utilized.
eg. int number; auto int number;
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This variables are private(local) to the

function in which they are declared.
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Variables declared inside a function

without storage class specification is, by
default, an automatic variable.
static
Static variables are initialized only once,

when the program is compiled.
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It may be of external or internal type

depending on the place of there declaration.
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It is declared using the keyword static like

static int x;
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The value of static variables persists until

the end of the program.
Register
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Dont try to declare a global variable as

register. Because the register will be
occupied during the lifetime of the program.
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C will automatically convert register

variables into nonregister variables once the
limit is reached.
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Storage variables are stored in one of the

machines register and are declared using
register keyword.
eg. register int c
Extern
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An external static variable seems similar

simple external variable but their difference
is that static external variable is available
only within the file where it is defined while
simple external variable can be accessed by
other files.
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An external static variable is declared

outside of all functions and is available to all
the functions in the program.
Operators in C
Mukesh kumar D
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Table of Contents
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Operators in C
Increment/decrement operators
Relational operators
Logical operators
Conditional operator
Bitwise operators
Special operators
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Introduction
Introduction
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Operators are symbols which take one

or more operands or expressions and
perform arithmetic or logical
computations.
Eg: a=b+c; here '=' and '+' are
operators and a,b,c are operands
C program provides wide variety of
operators
Operators in C
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C Language supports following types of

operators,
Increment/decrement operators
Relational operators
Logical operators
Conditional operator
Bitwise operators
Special operators
Arithmetic Operators
are used to perform
mathematical calculations like addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division and
modulus.
Example
Addition
A+B
Subtraction
A-B
Multiplication
A*B
Division
A/B
%
++
Modulus
Arithmetic
operators in C A%B
Increment
i++
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operations
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Operators
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Relational Operators
Relational operators are used to compare
the value of two
variables.
Example
>
Greater than
x>y
<
Lesser than
x<y
>=
Greater than
or equal to
x>=y
<=
==
Lesser than
x<=
or equal to
Relational operators in C
Equal to
x==y
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operation
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Operator
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Logical Operators
There are 3 logical operators in C
language. They are, logical AND (&&),
logical OR (||) and logical NOT (!).
Example
&&
Logical AND
x&& y
||
LOGICAL OR
x||y
Logical NOT
!(x&&y)
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Operation
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Operator
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Conditional Operators
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Working of the ? Operator:

Ex: m=2;
n=3
r=(m>n) ? m : n;
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Conditional operators return one value if

condition is true and returns another value
is condition is false.
Syntax : exp1 ? exp2 : exp3
Where exp1,exp2 and exp3 are expressions
Bitwise operators
Bitwise operator works on bits and
perform bit-by-bit operation
Operator
Meaning
Bitwise
OR
Bitwise
NOT
Bitwise
XOR
<<
Left shift
>>
Right
shift
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Bitwise
AND
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&
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Bitwise operators contd..

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Left Shift:
Shift n bits to left
Eg: a<<=3;
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Right Shift
Shift n bits to right
Eg:a>>=5;
Special operators
There are few other operators supported
by C Language.
Example
sizeof()
Returns the size

of a variable
sizeof(a);
Returns 4 if a is
an integer
&
Returns the
address of a
variable
&a will gives

actual address
of variable a
Pointer to a
variable
*a will be a
pointer to a
variable
Used to link
related
expression
together
int a,b,c;
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Description
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Operator
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Precedence of operators
Precedence and Associativity of C Operators
Type of Operation
Associativity
Left to right
prefix ++ and prefix sizeof

&
*
+ ~ !
Unary
Right to left
typecasts
Unary
Right to left
* / %
Multiplicative
Left to right
Additive
Left to right
<< >>
Bitwise shift
Left to right
< > <= >=
Relational
Left to right
== !=
Equality
Left to right
&
Bitwise-AND
Left to right
Bitwise-exclusive-OR
Left to right
Bitwise-inclusive-OR
Left to right
&&
Logical-AND
Left to right
||
Logical-OR
Left to right
? :
Conditional-expression Right to left
= *= /= %=
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Expression
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[ ] ( ) . > postfix ++ and postfix
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Symbol
Control Flow
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Table of Contents
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If else
Else if
Switch
Loops While,For & Do While
Break
Continue
Goto
Labels
If else
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if ( Expression )
statement1;
else
statement2;
Expression May Be checked with
Conditions.
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Used To Express Decisions.

Syntax :
Else - if
decisions .
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if(Expression1) s1;
Else if (Expression2)s2;
Else s3;
Control flows in order from top.
If expression satisfies condition,
statements within that condition gets
executed.
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Multiway
Syntax:
Switch
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according to The options and expressions.

Syntax:
Switch(opt){
case opt1:{}
case opt2:{}
Default : {} }
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Multiway decisions and branches
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For
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for(initialization;test condition;inc/dec){
Statements}
Entry check loop.
Initialization for variables done and
executed.
Loop runs till condition satisfies.
Other than Initialization condition,inc/dec
done in each iteration.
for(;;) -is an infinite loop
Any of the expressions can be omitted but
'; ;' is required
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Syntax :
Do - While
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do{
statements;}while(Condition/Expression);
Exit check loop.
No initialization for variables.
Nested loops Are Possible.
Break Stops The Execution of Loop and
Control Comes Out.
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Syntax :
Break & Continue
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Loop .
Continue Statement Transfers Control To
The Beginning Of The Loop.
In Do While loop Continue statement
Transfers Control To - While(con/exp).
Break And Continue Statements Used
Inside Of Loops Only.
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Break Statement Stops The Execution Of
Goto & Labels

used with label.
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Goto label;
Label can be anywhere inside the same
function as goto
Label is followed with colon.
Goto statement is used to break the loop
of deeply nested loop structures ( Where
break cannot be used since it breaks only
innermost loop).
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Goto statement is
Syntax :
FUNCTION POINTERS
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Table of Contents
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Introduction
What are function pointers .?
Definition
Need of function pointers
Assign and call using function pointers
Array of function pointers.
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Introduction
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of register has an address.

We can reference variables of the type
char, int, float, etc., through their address
(ie ., by using pointers).
Pointers can also point to c functions.
While many programming languages
support the concept of pointers to data,
only a few enable you to define pointers to
code -- that is, pointers that point to
functions
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Every type of variables with the exception
What are function Pointers?
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to data, it is possible to have pointers to

functions
Functions occupy memory locations
therefore every function has an address
just like each variable
The pointers which points to the functions
are called function pointers.
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C does not require that pointers only point
Define a Function Pointer
(*funcPointer) is needed because there are

precedence relationships in declaration
just as there are in expressions
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The extra parentheses around
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variable, it must be defined as usual.

Eg,
int (*funcPointer) (int, char, int);
funcPointer is a pointer to a function.
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A function pointer is nothing else than a
Why do we need function Pointers?
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used to perform similar tasks on data

(eg sorting)
One common use is in passing a function
as a parameter in a function call.
Can pass the data and the function to be
used to some control function
Greater flexibility and better code reuse
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Useful when alternative functions maybe
Assign an address to a Function Pointer

infront of the functions name
assign an address to the function pointer
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int welcome ( int a, char b, int c){

printf( Welcome to my presentation);
return a+b+c;
}
funcPointer= welcome; //assignment
funcPointer=&welcome; //alternative using
address operator
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It is optional to use the address operator &
Call using function pointers

There are two alternatives
* Use the name of the function pointer
* Can explicitly dereference it
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// calling a function using function pointer

answer= funcPointer (7, A , 2 );
answer=(* funcPointer) (7, A , 2 );
Array of function pointers

pointers to data therefore we can have
arrays of pointers to functions
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suppose that were writing a program

that displays a menu of commands for the
user to choose from. We can write functions
that implement these command then store
pointers to the functions in an array.
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This offers the possibility to select a

function using an index
Eg.
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C treats pointers to functions just like
Cont...
If the user selects a command between 0

and 6,then,we can subscript the file_cmd
array to find out which function to call
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void (*file_cmd[]) (void) =

{ new_cmd, open_cmd, close_cmd,
save_cmd ,
save_as_cmd, print_cmd,exit_cmd };
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file_cmd[n]();
POINTERS AND ARRAYS

Kiruthika . N
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Define pointer
Why pointer ?
Pointer Arithmetic
Pointer used as array
Array of pointer
Pointer to pointer
Constant pointer and pointer to a constant
Types of pointer
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Define pointer
A pointer is a variable whose value is the
address of another variable, i.e., direct
address of the memory location.
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Int a = 3;
Int *ptr = &a;
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Why pointer ?
address.
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#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int *ptr_A; /* A typed pointer */
void *ptr_B; /* A untyped pointer */
return 0;
}
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Pointers are needed for accessing the
Pointer used as array
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If we access array elements, it is

internally accessed only by using pointers
arr[i] == *(arr + i);
int a[3] = {1,2,3};
printf(%d,a[5]);
Output ???
Arrays don't have bounds checking
Array of pointer
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a 2-D array of chars :

char array[10][10];
Instead, we can implement our array of
strings as an array of pointers :
char *array[3] = {world, heaven,
bye};
While swapping the string internally the
pointers are swapped
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We could implement an array of strings as
Pointer to Pointer
pointer
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Pointer having the address of another
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Int *p, **ptr, a = 1;

P = &a;
**ptr = &p;
Constant pointer & pointer to constant
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Char *ptr = &ch;

Ptr = &c;
Char *const ptr = &ch;
Ptr = &c //error ,address is constant
Char ch = 'c';
Const char *ptr = &ch;
*ptr = 'a';// error ,value is constant
const* int *const p ;//constant pointer to a
constant integer
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Char ch, c;
States of pointer
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Null pointer
It points to nothing, when tried to
dereference it causes error
*p = NULL;
Void pointer
(void*) this indicates that it can point to
any datatype
void *p;
Wild pointer
pointer that doesn't point anything
valid
int *p;
Complicated
Declarations
Ravichandran. P
CR-08
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Complicated Declarations
Then read the right of the identifier until
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you find the close parantheses ')' .

Then read the left of the identifier until you
find the open parantheses '(' .
Then jump from that parantheses and
follow the second and third step till the
whole declaration completes.
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Rules to Read complicated Declarations

Start reading from the identifiers.
Examples
P is a pointer to
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an integer.
P is a pointer to
Int **p;
pointer to an integer.
P is a pointer to
Int (*p) (char)
function takes char as arg and returns an
integer.
Int * ( * ( *p) (int)) [10]
P is a pointer to function that takes
int as an argument and returns a pointer to
an array of 10 pointers to integers.
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Int *p;
References:
W.KERNIGHAN,DENNIS M.RITCHIE.
ow-to-interpret-complex-C-Cdeclarations#contents
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http://www.codeproject.com/Articles/7042/H
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The C programming Language By BRIAN
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STRUCTURES
Rajalakshmi
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Table of Contents
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Basics of structure
Structure and functions
Arrays of structure
Pointer to structure
Padding and Packing
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Basics of Structure
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different data types, possibly of different

type.
Eg: struct point{
int x;
char y;
};
Instance of structure can be created as
struct structure -name instance;
Members can be referred using '.' operator
structure-name.member
Structures can be nested .
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Structure is a collection of same or
Structures and Functions
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different ways
Can pass members separately
Pass entire structure
Pass Pointers
If large structure is to be passed ,passing a
pointer is more efficient.
Pointers to structure can access the
members in structure using ->operator.
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Structures can be passed to function in 3
Arrays of structures
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of structure.
This is also called structure array.
Eg: struct student{
char *name;
int rollno;
};
struct student student_details[10];
Array of structures are used when multiple
record of same structure has to be stored.
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Array of structure is nothing but collection
Pointers to structure
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function may not be

efficient,particularly when structure is
large.
We can eliminate is excessive
movement of data by passing the
pointer to structure to the functions.
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Passing and returing the structure to a
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Padding
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requirement.
Processor will have processing word length
as that of data bus.
Structures are used as data pack.
Because of the alignment requirement of
data type ,each element has to be
naturally aligned.
Eg struct padding{
int a;
char b;
}x;
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Every datatype will have alignment
packing
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padded bytes
In such case packing is used
Performance in less compared to padding
This can be achived with help of pragma
pack.
Eg: #pragma pack(push,1)
Struct stack{
char c;
Int a;
}x;
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Sometimes it is mandatory to avoid the
http://www.geeksforgeeks.org/structure-member-alignm
ent-padding-and-data-packing/
http://ee.hawaii.edu/~tep/EE160/Book/chap12/subsectio
n2.1.1.4.html
w.Kernighan and Dennis M.Ritchie
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The c programming language by Brain
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REFERENCES:
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STRUCTURES & UNIONS

MONICA C
CR-8
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Table of content
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Self-Referential structure
Typredef
Union
Bit-fields
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Self-Referential structure
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to data of same type as themselves.

It is also called as RECURSIVE DATA
STRUCTURES.
Struct list{
int data;
Struct list *next;
}
It is used in data structure such as binary
tree, linked list, stack, queue etc.
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Structure that contains the reference
Typedef
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create new data type, it adds a new name

for some existing data type.
Example:
typedef unsigned int UI;
UI a;
In the above example, the name UI is a
synonym for unsigned int.
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To create new data type (i.e) it does not
Typedef
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typedef struct list{

int data;
Struct list *next;
}list;
Instead of using
Struct list create(){......}
We can change the above function as
List create(){......}
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Example:
Union
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different kinds of data in a single area of

storage
Syntax :
Union example{
int num;
float fnum;
char ch;
}ex;
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Union provide a way to manipulate
Union
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fnum , ch are
stored in the same place regardless of its
type.
Members of the union can be accessed as
union_name.member;
Using pointers:
union_name->member;
Union may occur within structures.
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In the above example, num ,
Bit-fields
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at a premium
Example:
Struct bit{
Unsigned int flag:1;
Unsigned int sign:1;
}flag;
In the above exmaple, Instead of using
4bytes for integer
One bit is used.
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Bit-fields are used where storage space is
References:
g99/supplements/javaLists/
e/view.php?id=2905
The C Programming Language by Brain
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W.Kernighan and
Dennis M.Ritchie
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http://www.opengurukul.com/vlc/mod/pag
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http://classes.soe.ucsc.edu/cmps203/Sprin
FILES
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File Operations
Reading and Writing with files
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What is a file?
Accessing a file
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What is a file?
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A file is a collection of related data as a

single unit.
Computers store files to secondary
storage so that the contents of files
remain intact when a computer shuts
down.
C uses a structure called FILE to store the
attributes of a file.
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Accessing a file
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Create a pointer variable to the FILE

structure: FILE *fp;
Open the file associating the pointer with
the file name.
Read or write the data.
Close the file.
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File Operations
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fopen - open a file- specify how its opened

(read/write) and type (binary/text)
fclose - close a file opened
fread - read from a file
fwrite - write to a file
fseek - move a file pointer to somewhere
in a file.
ftell - tell you where the file pointer is
located.
File Open
Open a existing file in read mode

If file does not exist error returned
Open a new file in write mode

If the file exists its contents will be erased
Open a new (or) existing file in append mode
r+
Open for reading and writing (returns error if file

does not exist)
w+
Open for reading and writing (overwrites if file

exists)
a+
Open for reading and appending

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MODE
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Syntax:
filepointer=fopen(filename, mode);
File Opening modes
Writing to Files
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fprintf writes multiple variables

Syntax:fprintf(fptr,string,variables);
fputc write a single character
Syntax: fputc(character, filepointer);
fputs - writes a string
Syntax: fputs(String\n, filepointer);
fwrite writes a specified number of
equally sized data
Syntax: size_t fwrite(const void *ptr, size_t
size, size_t n, fptr);
Reading from files
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fscanf reads multiple variables

Syntax:fscanf(fp,string,identifiers);
fgetc reads a single character
Syntax: character = fgetc(fileptr);
fgets reads a string of n chars
Syntax: fgets(char *str, number,
filepointer);
fread reads a specified number of
equally sized data elements
Syntax: size_t fread(void *ptr, size_t size,
size_t number_of_elements, fileptr);
fseek(), ftell(), frewind()
Wireless
Telecom
Embedded
fseek() - sets the filepointer to the

specified position in the file
Syntax: int fseek(filepointer, long int
offset, int origin);
ftell() - returns the current position of file
pointer
Syntax: long int ftell(filepointer);
frewind() - moves the file pointer to the
beginning of the file
Syntax: frewind(filepointer);
Closing Files
Embedded
Wireless
fclose() - closes the file after finishing all

the operations on file
Syntax fclose(filepointer);
fcloseall() - closes all the open files and
return number of files closed
Syntax: int fcloseall()
Telecom
Compilation Process
Preprocessor, Compiler
Sampath N
Embedded
Wireless
Telecom
Table of Contents
Embedded
Overview
Compilation Stages
Wireless
Preprocessor
Compiler
Telecom
What is Compilation?
program in one language (source
language) into an equivalent program in
another language
compiler
Target
program
Wireless
Source
program
Embedded
Compilation is a process that translates a
Telecom
Error message
Complete Compilation Process

Embedded
Wireless
Telecom
Preprocessor
Telecom
Wireless
-E command
Preprocessor performs following
operations prior to compilation.
Expanding macros
Inclusion of header files
Comment Removal
Conditional compilation
(gcc -E filename.c > filename.i)
Embedded
The extension of preprocessed file is .i

It can be obtained by compiling code with
Compiler
Intermediate code
Scanner
(lexical analysis)
Parser
(syntax analysis)
Parse tree
Modified intermediate form

Target Code
Generation
Assembly code
Telecom
Semantic Analysis and

Intermediate Code
Generation
Code Optimization
Wireless
Tokens
Embedded
Source program (character stream)
Scanner: Lexical Analysis
Wireless
tokens
Grouping characters into non-separatable
units (tokens)
Changing a stream to characters to a
stream of tokens
Embedded
Lexical analysis breaks up a program into
Telecom
Symbol Table
Telecom
Wireless
program together with all the attributes of

each identifier
For variables typical attributes include
Type, Memory occupied, Scope
For functions typical attributes include
Number and type of arguments
Method of passing each argument
Type of value returned
Embedded
A symbol table is a data structure

It containing all the identifiers of a source
Parser: Syntax Analysis
Telecom
id1
+
*
id2
id3
Wireless
the grammatical
specification of the language and generates
the syntax tree
Example for Syntax tree (Parse tree)
Pos = init + rate *:=60 id1 = id2 + id3 *
const
Embedded
Checks whether the token stream meets
60
Sematic Analysis and Intermediate

Code Generation
Semantic analysis is applied by a compiler
Embedded
After sematic analysis intermediate code is
Wireless
to discover the meaning of a program by

analyzing its parse tree, symbol table
Telecom
generated. One of the most widely used

intermediate code is TAC (Three Address
Code).
Code Optimization
Telecom
Wireless
produce an efficient target code.

An optimizer attempts to improve the time
and space requirements of a program.
Common optimizations include
Removing redundant identifiers
Removing unreachable sections of code
Identifying common expressions
Unfolding loops
Eliminating procedures
Embedded
The code optimization is required to
Target Code Generation
Wireless
assembly code.
This assembly code is given as input to
assembler.
The extension of preprocessed file is .s
It can be obtained by compiling code with
-S command (gcc -S filename.c)
Embedded
The final stage of compiler is to generate
Telecom
Compilation Process
Assembler and Linker
Embedded
Wireless
Telecom
Table of Contents
Wireless
Assembler
Overview
Object file format
Process for producing an
executable file
Embedded
Compilation process
Telecom
Linker
Loader
Assembler
Telecom
Wireless
language programs into object files.

Object files contains a combination of
machine instructions,data and
instructions needed to place properly
in memory.
Assembler translates assembly
instructions and pseudo instructions
into machine instructions.
It converts the decimal numbers
given by the user to binary form.
Embedded
Assembler converts assembly
Assembler (contd...)
Wireless
labels in a symbol table.

Second pass : use information in the
symbol table to produce machine code
for each line.
Embedded
Assembler has two passes

First pass : reads each line and records
Telecom
Object file format
Object
header
Text
Segment
Data
Segment
Relocation
Information
Symbol
Table
Debugging
information
Telecom
files.
Text segment contains machine instructions.
Data segment contains the binary
representation of data in assembly file.
Relocation info identifies instructions and data
that depend on adsolute address.
Symbol table associates addresses with the
external labels and lists unresolved
references. Debug info.
Wireless
Object file describes the position and size of
Embedded
Object file format
Process for producing .exe file

Object
file
Source
file
Assembler
Object
file
Source
file
Assembler
Object
file
Linker
.exe
file
Telecom
Program
library
Wireless
Assembler
Embedded
Source
file
Linker
Embedded
Wireless
Telecom
Tool that gets seperate object file from

assembler and merges those object file to
form an executable file.
It performs three tasks
Finds library routines used by
programs.
Determines the memory locations that
each module should occupy and
relocates its instructions by adjusting
the absolute references.
Resolves references among
the files.
Loader
Embedded
Wireless
Telecom
Steps involved :
Read .exe file header to determine the
size of the text and data segments.
Create new address space for program.
Copies instructions and data into
address space.
Copies arguments passed to the
program into stack.
Jumps to the startup routine that copies
the program's arguments from the stack
to registers and calls the program's main
routine.
Stack Frame
Embedded
Wireless
Telecom
Table of Contents
Embedded
Terminologies
Subroutine
Stack Frame Structure
Example Program
Stack Related Issues
Wireless
Telecom
Terminologies
Telecom
Wireless
stack
associated with one subroutine
call.
Stack Pointer: register that contains the
top of the stack.
Frame Pointer: register that set to the
address of the stack frame when a
subprogram begins executing.
Embedded
Stack Frame: collection of all data in the
Subroutine
program instructions that perform

specific task, packaged as a unit.
Embedded
Subroutine : a subroutine is a sequence of
Wireless
Telecom
Stack Frame Structure
arg2
arg1
frame pointer
old sp
local2
Stack pointer
local3
Telecom
local1
Wireless
return address
Embedded
arg3
Example Program
Embedded
Wireless
int p1 = 1, p2 =2 , p3 = 3;
foo( p1, p2, p3 )
int p1, p2, p3;
{
int v1, v2 ,v3;
return 0;
}
main( )
{
foo( p1, p2, p3);
}
Telecom
Stack Structure
v3
v2
v1
Old FP
p1
p2
Old FP
FP
return addr
Registers
SP
102
108
argv
argc
Telecom
p3
Wireless
return addr
Static Memory
-P1 500
1
-P2 502
2
-P3 504
3
Embedded
100:
102:SP->
103:
106:
108:FP->
110:
112:
114:
116
118:
120:
122:
124
Stack Frame Issues

is no way for the called routine to
know whether the arguments pushed on
the stack are of the correct type.
Telecom
called routine cannot know whether

the calling routine pushed the correct
number of arguments onto the stack, it
just assumes that they are there.
Wireless
The
Embedded
There
Cont......
Wireless
type of arguments to expect on the stack, it

can be passed a variable number of
argument.
Embedded
If a routine can be told how many and what
Telecom
THE C PREPROCESSOR
Girija Pretha.A
Embedded
Wireless
Telecom
Table of Contents
Embedded
C Preprocessor
Preprocessing Phases
Conditional compilation
Wireless
Header file inclusion

Macro expansion/substitution
Telecom
C Preprocessor
Telecom
Wireless
compilation process.
Preprocessor instructs the compiler to do
some tasks before actual compilation.
It is a Macro processor that is used
automatically by c compiler to transform
program before compilation.
It allows to define macros which are
abbreviations of larger constructs
Embedded
Preprocessor is the first stage in
Preprocessing....
Embedded
C compiler (e.g., gcc)
cpp
(C
preprocessor)
(C compiler)
expand some kinds of characters

discard whitespace and comments
each comment is replaced with a single
space
process directives:
file inclusion (#include)
macro expansion (#define)
conditional compilation (#if, #ifdef, )
Telecom
expanded
code
compiled
code
cc1
Wireless
source
program
Preprocessing Phases
Embedded
Phases in preprocessing are
Wireless
Header File inclusion

Macro expansion
Conditional Compilation
Comment line removal
Telecom
Header File Inclusion
Wireless
Telecom
Embedded
#include <file>
The file is searched for in the standard
compiler include paths.
#include "file"
The search path is expanded to include
the current source directory and
searches in standard path if file not
found in current directory.
Macro Expansion
Telecom
Wireless
expanded in source code.

Object macros : PI 3.14
Function macros : SQR(a) a*a
This must not have whitespace between
SQR and '('.
If given they are expanded from '(' in
source code. Objects macros are used to
avoid hard coding in the program
Embedded
Identifiers defined as macro are directly
Conditional Compilation
Telecom
Wireless
of the program to be ignored during

compilation, on some conditions.
Conditions can be arithmetic expression or
macro is defined or not.
`#if' Basic conditionals using `#if' and
`#endif'.
`#else' Including some text if the condition
fails.
`#elif' Testing several alternative
possibilities.
Embedded
Conditional is a directive that allows a part
Program for macro

Embedded
Wireless
Telecom
#include<stdio.h>
#ifndef PI
#define PI 3.14
#endif
int main()
{
/*This is the macro example*/
printf("\nThis is macro example\n");
printf("Value of macro is%d",PI);
return 0;
}
Source code after preprocessing
Comments are
replaced with blank
lines
Telecom
Macro is
Substituted with its
value.
Wireless
printf("\nThis is macro example\n");

printf("Value of macro is%d",3.14);
return 0;
}
Embedded
# 1 "test.c"
# 1 "<built-in>"
# 1 "<command line>"
# 1 "test.c"
# 1 "/usr/include/stdio.h" 1 3 4
# 28 "/usr/include/stdio.h" 3 4
int main()
{
Memory Layout
Embedded
Wireless
Telecom
Table of Contents
Embedded
Wireless
Text Segment
Initialized Data Segment
Uninitialized Data Segment (bss)
Heap
Stack
Telecom
Memory layout of C Program
Stack
Uninitialized Data Segment (bss)
Text Segment
Telecom
Wireless
Heap
Embedded
Command Line Arguments And Global

Variables
Text Segment
Telecom
Wireless
which contains executable Instructions.

Prevent machine codes from being over
written by stack or heap overflow, it is
kept read only.
It can be accessed using function
pointers.
Embedded
Text Segment is a read Only (RO) part,
It is not a read only part. We can do read
Wireless
and write in this part.
Embedded
It is also called as Data Segment

It contains static and global variables
Int a = 10;
Static int a = 10;
Telecom
Uninitialized Data Segment
Wireless
variables.
Data in the BSS segment are initialized to
zero.
Lifetime of uninitialized data is the
complete execution time of the program.
Embedded
It is also called as BSS.

It contains uninitialized static and global
Telecom
Static int a;
Int a;
Heap
Wireless
Telecom
Embedded
Dynamic memory allocation takes place at

the heap segment.
malloc(), calloc(), realloc() can be used to
perform dynamic memory allocation.
Its address space grows from lower to
higher.
The Heap area is shared by all shared
libraries an dynamically loaded modules in a
process.
Stack
Embedded
Wireless
Telecom
All local variables stored under stack

segment.
Stack segment grows from highernumbered address to lower numbered
address.
When a function is called memory will be
allocated for its
local variables in a new
stack frame.
Int add()
{
Int a = 10, b = 10;
}
References
Wireless
http://see-programming.blogspot.in/2013/10/memory-layoutof-c-program.html
Embedded
http://www.geeksforgeeks.org/memory-layout-of-c-program/
Telecom
Embedded
Wireless
Telecom

Introduction To C: Embedded Wireless Telecom

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Introduction To C: Embedded Wireless Telecom

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INTRODUCTION TO C

It combines the best elements of high

C is a structured programming language.

BASIC DATA TYPES

Type (32 bit)

BASIC DATA TYPES(CONTD..)

Type (32 bit)

The general form of declaring a variable

All variables must be declared before use.

Variable is a named location in memory

Array and Pointer

The general form of a function is

The place where all the program activity

Structure and Union

Files must be opened before being

For files you want to read or write, you

A file is viewed as a stream of bytes.

Data Types and

Syntax : <Data type> <variable name>

Data Types specifies what type of data

These are data types which are

By using built-in data type collection

Derived data types

Built-in data types

In C we have two kind of Data types

Built-in Data Type

Built-in Data type in C contains

Built-in Data Type(cont)

Derived Data types

Array : it is a collection of homogeneous

Derived Data types(cont)

variable. Size is 4 bytes

Pointer : It only contains the address of another

elements but it allocates memory for only a data

Union :it is also collection of heterogeneous

variables, constant and operators written

expr1 ? expr2 : expr3

else expression 3 will be evaluated

If expression 1 is true expression 2 will be

Based on condition expression will be

This variables are private(local) to the

Variables declared inside a function

Static variables are initialized only once,

It may be of external or internal type

It is declared using the keyword static like

The value of static variables persists until

Dont try to declare a global variable as

C will automatically convert register

Storage variables are stored in one of the

An external static variable seems similar

An external static variable is declared

Operators are symbols which take one

C Language supports following types of

Working of the ? Operator:

Conditional operators return one value if

Bitwise operators contd..

Returns the size

&a will gives

prefix ++ and prefix sizeof

< > <= >=

Conditional-expression Right to left

[ ] ( ) . > postfix ++ and postfix

Used To Express Decisions.