Chapter8 Solutions

Chapter 8
Solutions
Chapter 8
Table of Contents
8.1 Characteristics of Solutions
8.2 Solubility
8.3 Solution Formation
8.4 Solubility Rules
8.5 Solution Concentration Units
8.6 Dilution
8.7 Colloidal Dispersions and Suspensions
8.8 Colligative Properties of Solutions
8.9 Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure
8.1 0 Dialysis
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Section 8.1
Characteristics of Solutions
Solution
A homogeneous mixture of two or more

substances with each substance retaining its
own chemical identity.
Solute component of a solution that is present
in a lesser amount relative to that of the solvent;
substance being dissolved.
Solvent component of a solution that is
present in the greatest amount; liquid water.
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Section 8.1
Colored Crystals (Solute) Mixed with Water (Solvent)
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Section 8.1
General Properties of a Solution
Contains 2 or more components.
Has variable composition.
Properties change as the ratio of solute to solvent is
changed.
Dissolved solutes are present as individual particles.
Solutes remain uniformly distributed and will not settle
out with time.
Solute generally can be separated from the solvent by
physical means such as evaporation.
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Section 8.2
Solubility
The maximum amount of solute that will dissolve

in a given amount of solvent under a given set of
conditions.
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Section 8.2
Solubility
Effect of Temperature on Solubility
Most solids become more soluble in water with

increasing temperature.
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Section 8.2
Solubility
Effect of Temperature on Solubility
In contrast, gas solubilities in water decrease

with increasing temperature.
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Section 8.2
Solubility
Effect of Pressure on Solubility
Pressure has little effect on the solubility of

solids and liquids in water.
Pressure has major effect on the solubility of
gases in water.
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Section 8.2
Solubility
Henrys Law
The amount of gas that will dissolve in a liquid at

a given temperature is directly proportional to
the partial pressure of the gas above the liquid.
As the pressure of a gas above the liquid
increases, the solubility of the gas increases.
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1 0
Section 8.2
Solubility
Saturated Solution
A solution that contains the maximum amount of

solute that can be dissolved under the
conditions at which the solution exists.
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1 1
Section 8.2
Solubility
Supersaturated Solution
An unstable solution that temporarily contains

more dissolved solute than that present in a
saturated solution.
Will produce crystals rapidly, often in a dramatic
manner, if it is slightly disturbed or if it is
seeded with a tiny crystal of solute.
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1 2
Section 8.2
Solubility
Unsaturated Solution
A solution that contains less than the maximum

amount of solute that can be dissolved under the
conditions at which the solution exists.
Most solutions we encounter fall into this
category.
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1 3
Section 8.2
Solubility
Concentrated and Dilute Solutions
Concentrated Solution a solution that contains

a large amount of solute relative to the amount
that could dissolve.
Dilute Solution a solution that contains a small
amount of solute relative to the amount that
could dissolve.
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Section 8.2
Solubility
Concentrated and Dilute Solutions
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1 5
Section 8.2
Solubility
Aqueous and Nonaqueous Solutions
Aqueous Solution a solution in which water is

the solvent.
Nonaqueous Solution a solution in which a
substance other than water is the solvent.
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1 6
Section 8.3
Solution Formation
For a Solute to Dissolve in a Solvent
Two types of interparticle attractions must be

overcome:
Attractions between solute particles (solutesolute attractions).
Attractions between solvent particles
(solvent-solvent attractions).
New type of interaction forms:
Attraction between solute and solvent
particles (solute-solvent attractions.)
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1 7
Section 8.3
Solution Formation
Dissolution of a Solid in a Liquid
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1 8
Section 8.3
Solution Formation
Factors Affecting the Rate of Solution Formation
1 . The state of subdivision of the solute.

2. The degree of agitation during solution
preparation.
3. The temperature of the solution components.
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1 9
Section 8.4
Solubility Rules
In general, it is found that the greater the

difference in solute-solvent polarity, the less
soluble is the solute.
Substances of like polarity tend to be more
soluble in each other than substances that differ
in polarity.
Like dissolves like (but not in all cases).
Use Solubility Guidelines for ionic compounds
in water.
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Section 8.4
Solubility Rules
Solubility Guidelines for Ionic Compounds in Water
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Section 8.4
Solubility Rules
Concept Check
Which of the following ions form compounds

with Pb2+ that are generally soluble in water?
a) S2
b) Cl
c) NO3
d) SO42
e) Na+
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Section 8.5
Solution Concentration Units

Concentration
The amount of solute present in a specified

amount of solution.
Two Methods of Expressing Concentration:
Percent Concentration
Molarity
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Section 8.5

Percent Concentration
Three different ways of representing percent

concentration:
Percent by Mass
Percent by Volume
Mass-Volume Percent
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Section 8.5

Percent by Mass
mass of solute
Percent by mass =
1 00
mass of solution
Mass of solution = mass of solute + mass of solvent
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Section 8.5

Exercise
What is the percent-by-mass concentration of

glucose in a solution made my dissolving 5.5 g
of glucose in 78.2 g of water?
6.6%
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Section 8.5

Percent by Volume
volume of solute
Percent by volume =
1 00
volume of solution
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Section 8.5

Exercise
Calculate the volume percent of solute in 30.0

mL of methyl alcohol in enough water to give
435 mL of solution.
6.90%
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Section 8.5

Mass-Volume Percent
mass of solute (g)

Mass volume percent =
1 00
volume of solution (mL)
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Section 8.5

Conversion Factors Obtained From Percent Concentration Units
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Section 8.5

Molarity
moles of solute
Molarity (M) =
liters of solution
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Section 8.5

Exercise
You have 1 .00 mol of sugar in 1 25.0 mL of

solution. Calculate the concentration in units of
molarity.
8.00 M
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Section 8.5

Exercise
You have a 1 0.0 M sugar solution. What

volume of this solution do you need to have
2.00 mol of sugar?
0.200 L
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Section 8.5

Exercise
Consider separate solutions of NaOH and KCl

made by dissolving 1 00.0 g of each solute in
250.0 mL of solution. Calculate the
concentration of each solution.
1 0.0 M NaOH
5.37 M KCl
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Section 8.6
Dilution
The process in which more solvent is

added to a solution in order to lower its
concentration.
Dilution with water does not alter the
numbers of moles of solute present.
Moles of solute before dilution = moles of
solute after dilution
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Section 8.6
Dilution
Dilution Calculations
Cs Vs = Cd Vd
(s = stock solution)
(d = diluted solution)
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Section 8.6
Dilution
Concept Check
A 0.50 M solution of sodium chloride sits on a lab

bench. Which of the following would decrease the
concentration of the salt solution?
a)
b)
c)
d)
Add water to the solution.

Pour some of the solution down the sink drain.
Add more sodium chloride to the solution.
Let the solution sit out in the open air for a couple of
days.
e) At least two of the above would decrease the
concentration of the salt solution.
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Section 8.6
Dilution
Exercise
What is the minimum volume of a 2.00 M NaOH

solution needed to make 1 50.0 mL of a 0.800 M
NaOH solution?
60.0 mL
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Section 8.7
Colloidal Dispersions and Suspensions

Colloidal Dispersion
A homogeneous mixture that contains dispersed

particles that are intermediate in size between
those of a true solution and those of an ordinary
heterogeneous mixture.
Dispersed phase (like the solute)
Dispersing medium (like the solvent)
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39
Section 8.7

Tyndall Effect
The light-scattering phenomenon that causes

the path of a beam of visible light through a
colloidal dispersion to be observable.
When we shine a beam of light through a true
solution, we cannot see the track of the light.
A beam of light passing through a colloidal
dispersion can be observed because the light
is scattered by the dispersed phase.
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Section 8.7

Yellow Solution vs. Colloidal Dispersion in Red
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41
Section 8.7

Suspension
A heterogeneous mixture that contains

dispersed particles that are heavy enough that
they settle out under the influence of gravity.
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42
Section 8.7

Property Comparison for Solutions, Colloidal Dispersions, and
Suspensions
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Section 8.8
Colligative Properties of Solutions

Colligative Property
A physical property of a solution that

depends only on the number (concentration)
of solute particles present in a given
quantity of solvent and not on their chemical
identities.
Vapor-pressure lowering
Boiling-point elevation
Freezing-point depression
Osmotic pressure
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44
Section 8.8

Vapor-Pressure Lowering
Adding a nonvolatile solute to a solvent lowers

the vapor pressure of the resulting solution below
that of the pure solvent at the same temperature.
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45
Section 8.8

Vapor-Pressure Lowering
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46
Section 8.8

Boiling-Point Elevation
Adding a nonvolatile solute to a solvent

raises the boiling point of the resulting
solution above that of the pure solvent.
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Section 8.8

Freezing-Point Depression
Adding a nonvolatile solute to a solvent

lowers the freezing point of the resulting
solution below that of the pure solvent.
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Section 8.9
Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure

Osmosis
The passage of a solvent through a

semipermeable membrane separating a
dilute solution (or pure solvent) from a more
concentrated solution.
Semi-permeable membrane a
membrane that allows certain types of
molecules to pass through it but prohibits
the passage of other types of molecules.
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49
Section 8.9

Osmosis
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Section 8.9

Semi-Permeable Membrane
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Section 8.9

Osmotic Pressure
The pressure that must be applied to

prevent the net flow of solvent through a
semipermeable membrane from a solution
of lower solute concentration to a solution of
higher solute concentration.
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Section 8.9

Osmotic Pressure
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Section 8.9

Osmolarity
Used to compare the osmotic pressures of

solutions.
Osmolarity = molarity i
i is the number of particles produced from
the dissociation of one formula unit of
solute.
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54
Section 8.9

Exercise
What is the osmolarity of a 3 M NaCl solution?

6 osmol
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Section 8.9

Hypotonic Solution
A solution with a lower osmotic pressure

than that within cells.
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Section 8.9

Hypotonic Solution: Hemolysis Occurs in Pure Water
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Section 8.9

Hypertonic Solution
A solution with a higher osmotic pressure

than that within cells.
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Section 8.9

Hypertonic Solution: Crenation Occurs in NaCl
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Section 8.9

Isotonic Solution
A solution with an osmotic pressure that is

equal to that within cells.
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Section 8.9

Isotonic Solution: Cells Neither Swell Nor Shrink in Saline Soln
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Section 8.9

Characteristics of Hypotonic, Hypertonic, and Isotonic Solutions
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Section 8.10
Dialysis
The osmotic-type process that occurs in

living systems.
Process in which a semipermeable
membrane allows the passage of solvent,
dissolved ions, and small molecules but
blocks the passage of colloidal-sized
particles and large molecules.
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Section 8.10
Dialysis
There is a net movement of ions from a

region of higher concentration to a region of
lower concentration.
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Section 8.10
Dialysis
Can be used to purify a colloidal solution

containing protein molecules and solute.
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65

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Chapter 8

Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved

A homogeneous mixture of two or more

Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved

Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved

Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved

The maximum amount of solute that will dissolve

Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved

Most solids become more soluble in water with

Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved

In contrast, gas solubilities in water decrease

Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved

Pressure has little effect on the solubility of

Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved

The amount of gas that will dissolve in a liquid at

Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved

A solution that contains the maximum amount of

Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved

An unstable solution that temporarily contains

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A solution that contains less than the maximum

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Concentrated Solution a solution that contains

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Aqueous Solution a solution in which water is

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Two types of interparticle attractions must be

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Copyright Cengage Learning. All rights reserved

1 . The state of subdivision of the solute.

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In general, it is found that the greater the

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Which of the following ions form compounds

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Solution Concentration Units

The amount of solute present in a specified

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Solution Concentration Units

Three different ways of representing percent

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Solution Concentration Units

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Solution Concentration Units

What is the percent-by-mass concentration of

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Solution Concentration Units

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Solution Concentration Units

Calculate the volume percent of solute in 30.0

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Solution Concentration Units

mass of solute (g)

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Solution Concentration Units

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Solution Concentration Units

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Solution Concentration Units

You have 1 .00 mol of sugar in 1 25.0 mL of

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Solution Concentration Units