Calculus

Differential Calculus
Based On:
Average Rates of Change

DEFINITION:
The average rate of change of y with respect to x, as
x changes from x1 to x2, is the ratio of the change in
output to the change in input:
y2 y1
,
x2 x1
where x2 x1.

DEFINITION (concluded):
If we look at a graph of
the function, we see that
y2 y1
f ( x2 ) f ( x1 )
,
x2 x1
x2 x1
which is both the average
rate of change and the
slope of the line from
P(x1, y1) to Q(x2, y2).
suur
The line through P and Q, PQ, is called a secant line.

2
Example 1: For y f ( x) x find the
average rate of change as:

a) x changes from 1 to 3.
b) x changes from 1 to 2.
c) x changes from 2 to 3.
a) When x1 = 1, y f ( x1 ) f (1) 12 1.
2
y
f
(
x
)
f
(3)
3
9.
When x2 = 3,
2
Thus, the average rate of change is
9 1 8
4.
3 1 2

Example 1 (concluded):
b) When x1 = 1, y f ( x1 ) f (1) 1 1.
2
When x2 = 2, y f ( x1 ) f (2) 2 4.
4 1 3
3.
2 1 1
2
c) When x1 = 2, y f ( x1 ) f (2) 2 4.
2
y
f
(
x
)
f
(3)
3
9.
1
When x = 3,
2

94 5
5.
3 2 1

Quick Check 1
State the average rate of change for each situation in a short sentence. Be sure to
include units.
a.) It rained 4 inches over a period of 8 hours.
4 in 0 in 4 in 1 in
.
8 hr 0 hr 8 in 2 hr
The average rate of rain fall was 0.5 inches of rain every hour.
The average rate of change is
b.) Your car travels 250 miles on 20 gallons of gas.

250mi 0 mi 250 mi 25 mi
.
20
gal
0
gal
20
gal
2
gal
The average miles traveled on a gallon of gas was 12.5 miles every gallon.
c.) At 2p.m., the temperature was 82 degrees. At 5 p.m., the temperature was 76 degrees.
82 76 degrees 6 degrees 2 degrees
.
The average change in temperature
was
degrees3every
5 p.m.
22p.m.
hourshour. 1 hour

Quick Check 2
For f ( x) x 3 , find the average rate of change between:
a.) x 1 and x 4 ;
b.) x 1 and x 2 ;
c.) x 1 and x 1.2 .
a.) When
When
x1 1
,
,
y1 f ( x1 ) f (1) 13 1.
x2 4 y2 f ( x2 ) f (4) 43 64.
Thus the rate of change is
64 1 63
21.
4 1
3

Quick Check 2 Continued
b.) When x1 1, y1 f ( x1 ) f (1) 13 1.
When x2 2, y2 f ( x2 ) f (2) 23 8.
Thus the average rate of change is 8 1 7.
2 1
c.) When x 1, y f ( x ) f (1) 13 1.
1
1
1
When
x2 1.2, y2 f ( x2 ) f (1.2) 1.23 1.728.
Thus the average rate of change is
1.728 1
3.64.
1.2 1

DEFINITION:
The average rate of change of f with respect to x is also
called the difference quotient. It is given by
f ( x h) f ( xwhere
)
h 0.
,
h
The difference
quotient is equal
to the slope of the
secant line from
(x, f (x)) to
(x+h, f (x+h)).

2
Example 2: For f ( x) x find the
difference quotient when:

a) x = 5 and h = 3.
b) x = 5 and h = 0.1.
a) We substitute x = 5 and h = 3 into the formula:
f ( x h) f ( x )
f (5 3) f (5)
f (8) f (5)
h
3
3
82 52
64 25
39
13
3
3
3

b) We substitute x = 5 and h = 0.1 into the formula:
f ( x h) f ( x )
f (5 0.1) f (5)
f (5.1) f (5)
h
0.1
0.1
5.12 52
0.1
26.01 25
1.01
10.1
0.1
0.1

3
Example 3: For f x x find a simplified
form of the difference quotient.

f x h f x x h x3
h
h
x3 3 x 2 h 3 xh 2 h3 x 3
h
h 3 x 22 3 xh h 2
h
22
22
3 x 3 xh h , h 0.
3

Quick Check 3
Use the result of Example 3 to calculate the slope of the secant line
(average rate of change) at x 2, for h 0.1, h 0.01, and h 0.001.
Using the formula found in Example 6 (3 x 2 3 xh) h 2 , h 0
For h 0.1: 3(2) 2 3(2)(0.1) 0.12 12 0.6 0.01 12.61
For h 0.01: 3(2) 2 3(2)(0.01) 0.012 12 0.06 0.0001 12.0601
For
:
h 0.001 3(2) 2 3(2)(0.001) 0.0012 12 0.006 0.000001
12.006001

3
Example 4: For f x find a simplified
x
form of the difference quotient.
3
3 3x 3 x h
f x h f x x h x
x x h
h
h
h
33x
x 33x
x 33h
h
3h
3h
xx xx
hh
xx xx
hh
hh
hh
3
3
, h
h 0.
xx xx
hh
Section Summary
An average rate of change is the slope of a line between two points.

If the points are
, then the average rate of change is
( x1 , y1 ) and
( x2 , y2 )
y2 y1
.
x2 x1
If the two points are solutions to a single function, an equivalent
form of the slope formula
is h) f ( x)
where h is the
f (x
,
horizontal difference betweenh the two
This is called the
x-values.
difference quotient. The line connecting these two points is called a
secant line.

Section Summary Continued
The difference quotient is the same as the slope formula. Both

give the slope of the line between two points.
The difference quotient gives the average rate of change between

two points on a graph, represented by the secant line.
It is preferable to simplify a difference quotient algebraically

before evaluating it for particular values of x and h.
Differentiation Using Limits

of Difference Quotients
Differentiation Using Limits of Difference

Quotients
DEFINITION:
The slope of the tangent
line at (x, f (x)) is
f x h f x
m lim
.
h 0
h
This limit is also the
instantaneous rate of
change of f (x) at x.

Quotients
DEFINITION:
For a function y = f (x),
its derivative at x is the
function f defined by
f x h f x
f x lim
h 0
h
provided the limit exists.
If f x exists, then we say that f is differentiable
at x. We sometimes
f call the derived function.

Quotients
2
f
x
x
, find f x . Then
Example 1: For
find f 3 and f 4 .
f x h f x
x h x
f x lim
lim
h 0
h 0
h
h
h 2x h
x 2 2 xh h 2 x 2
f x lim
lim
h 0
h 0
h
h
f x lim 2 x h
2
h 0
f x 2x

Quotients
f x 2x
f 3 2 3 6
f 4 2 4 8

Quotients
3
f
x
x
, find f x .
Example 2: For
Then find f 1 and f 1.5 .
f x
f x
f x
f x
3
f x h f x
x
lim
lim
h 0
h 0
h
h
x 3 3 x 2 h 3xh 2 h3 x 3
lim
h 0
h
h 3 x 2 3xh h 2
lim
lim3 x 2 3 xh h 2
h 0
h 0
h
3x 2
3

Quotients
f x 3x 2
f 1 3 1 3 1 3
2
f x 3 1.5 3 2.25 6.75

2

Quotients
Quick Check 1
Use the results from Examples 1 and 2 to find the derivative
and then calculatef (2)
andf (4) .
f ( x<insert>
) x3 x 2
Interpret these results.
From Example 1, we know that the derivative of x 2 2 x,
and from Example 2, we know that the derivative
x3 3x 2
of
. Using the Limit Property L3, we then
f (know
x) 3that
x2 2x
.

Quotients
Quick Check 1 Concluded
Now, we plug in x 2
into our new derivative formula:
f (2) 3(2) 2 2( 2) 12 4 8
Next, we plug inx 4
into our new derivative formula:
f (4) 3(4) 2 2(4) 48 8 56

These results mean that when
,
is increasing at a
x 2 f ( x )
rate of and when
is increasing at a rate of
8,
x 4, f ( x)
56.

Quotients
3
Example 3: Forf x :
x
a) Find f x .
b) Find f 2 .
c) Find an equation of the tangent line to the
curve at x = 2.

Quotients
Example 3 (continued):
3
3
f x h f x
lim x h x
a) f x lim
h 0
h 0
h
h
3x 3 x h
3 x 3 x 3h
x x h
x x h
f x lim
lim
h 0
h 0
h
h
3h
x x h
3
3
f x lim
lim
2.
h 0
h 0 x x h
h
x

Quotients
b)
3
f x 2
x
3
3
f 2 2
2
4

Quotients
3
3
c) x 2, m f '(2) , y f (2)
4
2
y mx b
3
3
3
y x 3
2 bThus,
4
2
4
is the equation of the
3
3
b
tangent line.
2
2
3 b

Quotients
Quick Check 2
2
Repeat Example 3a for f ( x) . What are the similarities in
x
your method?
2 2
f ( x h) f ( x )
f ( x) lim
lim x h x
h 0
h 0
h
h
2 x 2 x 2h
2h
x ( x h)
x( x h)
lim
lim
h 0
h 0
h
h
lim
h 0
2 x 2( x h)
x( x h)
lim
h 0
h
2
2
2
x
x ( x h)
Both methods had the same basic principle. You start by using
the derivative formula, then you break it down until you do not
have an h anywhere in the equation.

Quotients
Where a Function is Not Differentiable:
1) A function f (x) is not differentiable at a point x
= a, if there is a corner at a.

Quotients
2) A function f (x) is not differentiable at a point
x = a, if there is a vertical tangent at a.

Quotients
3) A function f (x) is not differentiable at a point x =
a, if it is not continuous at a.
Example: g(x) is not
continuous at 2,
so g(x) is not
differentiable at x = 2.

Quotients
Quick Check 3
Where is f ( x) not
Why?
x differentiable?
6
f ( x) x 6 is not differentiable at x 6 . This is the vertex
of the function, and is considered a corner of the function.
Therefore, f ( x) x 6is not differentiable at
x .6

Quotients
Section Summary
A tangent line is a line that touches a (smooth) curve at a
single point, the point of tangency.
The derivative of a function f (x) is defined by
f ( x h) f ( x )
f ( x) lim
.
x 0
h

Quotients
Section Summary Continued
The slope of the tangent line to the graph of y f (x) atx a
is the value of the derivative xat a
; that is, the slope of
the tangent line
x ata
f (ais).
Slopes of tangent lines are interpreted as instantaneous
rates of change.
The equation of a tangent line at x a is found by
simplifying
y f (a ) f (a )( x a )
If a function is differentiable at a point
x a , then it is
continuous at
. That is, differentiability implies
xa
continuity.

Quotients
Section Summary Concluded
However, continuity at a point x a does not imply

differentiability at x a . A good example is the absolute-value
function, f ( x) x , or any function whose graph has a corner.
Continuity alone is not sufficient to guarantee differentiability.
A function is not differentiable at a point x a if:

1) There is a discontinuity at x a
2) There is a corner at x a , or
3) There is a vertical tangent at x a
Differentiation Techniques:
The Power and SumDifference Rules
OBJECTIVE
Differentiate using the Power Rule or the

Sum-Difference Rule.
Differentiate a constant or a constant
times a function.
Determine points at which a tangent line
has a specified slope.
Differentiation Techniques: The Power Rule and

Sum-Difference Rules
Leibnizs Notation:
When y is a function of x, we will also designate the
derivative, f x , as
dy
,
dx
which is read the derivative of y with respect to x.

THEOREM 1: The Power Rule
For any real number k, if y = xk, then
dy k
x k x k 1
dx

Example 1: Differentiate each of the
following:
5
y c)
x
a) y xb)
y x 4
d 4
41
d
d
5
5
1
1
1
x
4
x
a) x 5 x b)
x 1 x c) dx
dx
dx
d 4
5
d
d 5
4
x
4
x
x 1
x 5x
dx
dx
dx

Quick Check 1
a.) Differentiate:
y x 7
y ; x15(ii)
b.) Explain why d ( 2 ) 0 , not 2 .
dx
(i)

Quick Check 1 solution
a.) Use the Power Rule for both parts: d x k kx k 1

dx
14
(i)
y x15 , y 15 x
(ii)
y x 7 , y 7 x 8
b.) The reason d ( 2 ) 0 and not 2 , is because is a constant,

dx the derivative of any constant is 0:
not a variable and
d
c0
dx

Example 2: Differentiate:
a)
y x b)
1
1
1
dy
dy
1
a)
2
2
x
x x
dx
dx
2
dy
1 12
x x , or
dx
2
1
, or
1
2x 2
1
2 x
yx
0.7
b) d x 0.7 0.7 x 0.71

dx
d 0.7
x 0.7 x 0.3
dx

THEOREM 2:
The derivative of a constant function is 0. That is,
d
c 0
dx

THEOREM 3:
The derivative of a constant times a function is the
constant times the derivative of the function. Using
derivative notation, we can write this as
d
d
c f ( x ) c f ( x )
dx
dx

Example 3: Find each of the following derivatives:
a)
a)
d
c)(9 x)
dx
d
4
7 xb)
dx
d
d 4
4
7x 7 x
dx
dx
7 4x
d
7 x 4 28 x 3
dx
4 1
b)
d 1
dx 5 x 2
d
d
(9 x) 9 x
dx
dx
9 1x11
d
(9 x) 9
dx

d 1
1 d 1
c)

2
2
dx 5 x
5 dx
x

1 d 2
x
5 dx
1
2 x 21
5
d 1
2 3
2
x , or 3
2
dx 5 x
5
5x

Quick Check 2
Differentiate each of the following:
a.)
y 10 x 9 , y 9 10 x 91 90x8
b.) y x 3 , y 3 x 31 3 x 2
c.)
2 41
8
2
8 5
2 4
y 4 x , y 4 x x 5
3
3x
3x
3
3

THEOREM 4: The Sum-Difference Rule
Sum: The derivative of a sum is the sum of the
derivatives.
d
d
d
f ( x) g ( x) f ( x) g ( x)
dx
dx
dx
Difference: The derivative of a difference is the
difference of the derivatives.
d
d
d
f ( x) g ( x) f ( x) g ( x)
dx
dx
dx

Example 4: Find each of the following derivatives:
a)
d
3
(5 xb)
7)
dx
d
24 x
dx
5
x
x
d
d
d
3
3
(5 x 7)
(5 x ) (7)
a)
dx
dx
dx
d 3
5 x 0 5 3 x31
dx
d
3
2
(5 x 7) 15 x
dx

b)
d
24 x
dx
5
d
d
d
x (24 x)
x
x
dx
dx
dx
1
2
1
24 x
2
1
2
5 x 2 ,
d
d
d 1
24 x x 5 x
dx
dx
dx
1
1 2 1
11
24 1x x
5 1x 11
2
1
5
or 24
2
2 x x

Quick Check 3
1
5
3
Differentiate: y 3x 2 x 2 5
3x
dy 5
1
dy 5 dy 3
dy 1
dy
5
3 x 2 x 2 5 3 x 2 x
2
dx
3x
dx
dx
dx 3x
dx
1
1
2
2 21
dy 5 dy 13 dy 1 2 dy
51
3
0
3x 2 x
x
5 5 3 x x x
3
3
dx
dx
dx 3
dx
2
2
2 2/3 2 3
4
15 x x x 15 x 3 2 3
3x
3
3
3 x
4

Example 5: Find the points on the graph of
f ( x) x 3 6 x 2 at which the tangent line is horizontal.
Recall that the derivative is the slope of the tangent
line, and the slope of a horizontal line is 0. Therefore,
we wish to find all the points on the graph of f where
the derivative of f equals 0.

So, for
f ( x) x3 6 x 2
f ( x) 3 x 31 6 2 x 21
f ( x) 3 x 2 12 x
Setting
f equal
x to 0:
3 x 2 12 x 0
3 x( x 4) 0
3 x 0 x 4 0
x0
x4

To find the corresponding y-values for these x-values,
3
2
f
(
x
)
6
x
.
substitute back into
f (0) 0 6 0
f (0) 0
3
f (4) 4 6 4
3
f (4) 32
Thus, the tangent line to the graph of f ( x) x 3 6 x 2

is horizontal at the points (0, 0) and (4, 32).


Example 6: Find the points on the graph of
f ( x) x 3 6 x 2 at which the tangent line has slope 6.

Here we will employ the same strategy as in Example
6, except that we are now concerned with where the
derivative equals 6.
Recall that we already found that f ( x) 3x 2 12 x.

Thus,
2
3 x 12 x 6
3 x 2 12 x 6 0
3 x 12 x 6
0
3
3
x2 4x 2 0
2
4 (4) 2 4 1 2 4 16 8
x
2 1
2

4 8
x
2
42 2
x
2
x 2 2 and 2 2
Again, to find the corresponding y-values, we will
substitute these x-values into f ( x) x 3 6 x 2 .


6 2 2
8 12 2 12 2 2 6 4 4
f 2 2 2 2
22
20 14 2 36 24 2
16 10 2
Similarly, f 2 2 16 10 2
Thus, the tangent line to f ( x) x 3 6 x 2 has a slope
of 6 at 2 2, 16 10 2 and 2 2, 16 10 2 .


Section Summary
Common forms of notation for the derivative of a function are
dy
d
y
f ( x)
f ( x)
dx
dx
The Power Rule for differentiation is d k
, for all real
x kx k 1
dx
numbersk .
The derivative of a constant is zero: d
.
c0
dx

The derivative of a constant times a function is the constant time
the derivative of the function:
d
d
c f ( x) c f ( x)
dx
dx
The derivative of a sum (or difference) is the sum (or difference)
of the derivatives of the terms:
d
d
d
f ( x) g ( x) f ( x) g ( x)
dx
dx
dx
The Product and Quotient
Rules
OBJECTIVE
Differentiate using the Product and the

Quotient Rules.
Use the Quotient Rule to differentiate the
average cost, revenue, and profit functions.
The Product and Quotient Rules
THEOREM 5: The Product Rule
Let F ( x) f ( x) g ( x).
Then,
d
F ( x)
f ( x) g ( x)
dx
d
d
F ( x) f ( x) g ( x) g ( x) f ( x)
dx
dx
The derivative of a product is the first factor times
the derivative of the second factor, plus the
second factor times the derivative of the first
factor.
d 4
3
2
x
2
x
7
3
x
5 x .
Example 1: Find
dx
d 4
3
2

x
2
x
7
3
x
5
x
dx
4
3
2
3
2
x
2
x
6
x
3
x
5
x
4
x
6
x

Quick Check 1
Use the Product Rule to differentiate each of the following
functions. Do not simplify.
a.) y (2 x 5 x 1)(3 x 2)
b.)
y ( x 1)( 5 x x)
Quick Check 1 Solution
5
a.) y (2 x x 1)(3 x 2)
Using the Product Rule:
d
f x g x
dx
d
f x g x
dx
d
g x f x
dx
y (2 x 5 x 1)(3x11 0) (3x 2)(5 2 x 51 x11 0)
We get:
y 3(2 x 5 x 1) (3x 2)(10 x 4 1)

b.) y
x 1
xx
Again, using the Product Rule, we get:

y ( x 1)( x
y
1
1
5
x 1
x ) ( x x )( x
1
x4
1
5
11
1
1
2
xx
0)
THEOREM 6: The Quotient Rule
N ( x)
,
If Q( x)
D( x)
Q( x)
then,
D( x) N ( x) N ( x) D( x )
D( x)
The derivative of a quotient is the denominator

times the derivative of the numerator, minus the
numerator times the derivative of the
denominator, all divided by the square of the
denominator.
x 2 3x
Example 2: Differentiatef ( x)
.
x 1
( x 1)(2 x 3) ( x 2 3 x)(1)
f ( x)
( x 1) 2
2 x 2 5 x 3 x 2 3x
f ( x)
( x 1) 2
x2 2x 3
f ( x)
( x 1) 2
Quick Check 2
1 3x
a.) Differentiate: f ( x) . Simplify
your result.
2
x 2
b.) Show that
d ax 1
a b
dx bx 1
bx
a.) Using the Quotient Rule: d
dx
We get:
d
d
g
(
x
)
[
f
(
x
)]
f
(
x
)
[ g ( x)]
f ( x )
dx
dx
2
g ( x )
[ g ( x )]
( x 2 2)(0 3) (1 3 x)(2 x 0)
f ( x)
( x 2 2) 2
3 x 2 6 2 x 6 x 2
f ( x)
x4 4x2 4
3x 2 2 x 6
f ( x) 4
x 4x2 4
Quick Check 2 Solution Concluded
b.) Using the Quotient Rule:d
dx
We know that:
d
d
g
(
x
)
[
f
(
x
)]
f
(
x
)
[ g ( x)]
f ( x )
dx
dx
2
g ( x )
[ g ( x )]
d ax 1
(bx 1)(a ) (ax 1)(b)
2
dx bx 1
bx 1
(abx a ) (abx b)
(bx 1) 2
abx a abx b
(bx 1) 2
a b
(bx 1) 2
DEFINITION:
If C(x) is the cost of producing x items, then the
average cost of producing x items is
C ( x)
.
x
If R(x) is the revenue from the sale of x items, then the

average revenue from selling x items is
R( x)
.
x
If P(x) is the profit from the sale of x items, then the

average profit from selling x items is
P( x)
.
x
Example 3: Paulsens Greenhouse finds that
the cost, in dollars, of growing x hundred
geraniums is C ( x) 200 100 4 x .
given by R ( x) 120 90 x ,
If the revenue
from the sale of x hundred geraniums is given by
find each of the following.
a) The average cost, the average revenue, and
the average profit when x hundred geraniums are
grown and sold.
b) The rate at which average profit is changing
when 300 geraniums are being grown.
a) We let AC, AR, and AP represent average cost,
average revenue, and average profit.
C ( x)
200 100 4 x
AC ( x)
x
x
R( x)
120 90 x
A R ( x)
x
x
P( x) R ( x) C ( x) 120 90 x 200 100 4 x
A P ( x)
x
x
x4
80 90 x 100 x
A P ( x)
x
b) First we must find AP x . Then we can

substitute AP x .
3 (hundred) into
AP x
1
x 90 x
2
1
2
1
2
1
4
1
1
1
4
100 x 80
90 x2 100
x
1
4
x2
3
4
1
2
45 x 25 x 80 90 x 100 x
x2
1
4
1
2
80 45 x 75 x
AP ( x)
x2
1
2
1
4
80 45(3) 75(3)
AP (3)
32
AP (3) 11.196
1
4
Thus, at 300 geraniums, Paulsens average profit

is increasing by about $11.20 per plant.
Section Summary
The Product Rule is:
d
d
d
f ( x) g ( x) f ( x) [ g ( x)] g ( x) [ f ( x)]
dx
dx
dx
The Quotient Rule is:
d
d
g
(
x
)
[
f
(
x
)]
f
(
x
)
[ g ( x)]
d f ( x)
dx
dx
dx g ( x)
[ g ( x)]2
Be careful to note the order in which you write out the
factors when using the Quotient Rule. Because the Quotient
Rule involves subtraction and division, the order in which you
perform the operations is important.
The Chain Rule

OBJECTIVE
Find the composition of two functions.

Differentiate using the Extended Power
Rule or the Chain Rule.
The Chain Rule

THEOREM 7: The Extended Power Rule
Supposethatg(x)isadifferentiablefunction
ofx.Then,foranyrealnumberk,
d
g x
dx
k g x
k 1
d
g x
dx
The Chain Rule

Example 1: Differentiate f x 1 x
d
1 x
dx
1
3 2
1
3 2 1
1
3 2
1
1 x 3 x 2
2
1
3x 2
3
1 x 2
2
2
3x
2 1 x3
The Chain Rule

Example 2:
4
10
Differentiate f x 3 x 5 7 x .
Combine Product Rule and Extended Power Rule
f x 3x 5 10 7 x
1
3
10
4 3x 5 7 x 3
Simplified:
f x 2 3 x 5 7 x 67 21x
3
The Chain Rule

Differentiate: f ( x)
Quick Check 1
(2 x 2 1)
3x
We will combine both the quotient rule and the chain rule:
d
d
(3 x 4 2) 2 (2 x 2 1) (2 x 2 1) ((3 x 4 2) 2 )
dx
dx
f ( x)
4
2 2
[(3 x 2) ]
(3 x 4 2) 2 (4 x) (2 x 2 1) (2(3 x 4 2)(12 x 3 )
f ( x)
(3 x 4 2) 4
4 x(3 x 4 2) 2 (2 x 2 1)(72 x 7 48 x 3 )
f ( x)
(3 x 4 2) 4
f x
36 x5 24 x 3 8 x
3x 4 2
The Chain Rule

DEFINITION:
The composed function
and g, is defined as
, the composition of f
f og f g x .
The Chain Rule

Example 3: For f ( x) x 3 and g ( x) 1 x 2 ,
find
and
f (1 x 2 )
g ( x3 )
(1 x 2 )3
1 ( x3 )2
1 3x 2 3x 4 x6
1 x6
The Chain Rule

Example 4: For f ( x) x and g ( x) x 1,
find
and
f ( x 1)
g( x )
The Chain Rule

Quick Check 2
For the functions in Example 4, find:
a.)
f ( x)
x 4x
b.)
g ( x 1) x 1 1 x 2
The Chain Rule

THEOREM 8: The Chain Rule
The derivative of the composition
is given by
d
d
( f og )( x) f ( g ( x)) f ( g ( x)) g ( x).
dx
dx
The Chain Rule

Example 5: For y 2 u and
dy du
dy
,
, and
.
find
du dx
dx
dy 1 12
u
du 2
and
u x 3 1,
du
2
3x
dx
dy dy du
dx du dx
2
1
3
x
3 x 2
2 u
2 x3 1
The Chain Rule

Quick Check 3
dy
2
2
If y u u and u x x , find
.
dx
We will start by finding dy and du :
du
dx
dy
2u 1
du
du
2x 1
dx
Next we find dy , remembering to substitute 2

for when appropriate.
x x
u
dx
dy dy du
(2u 1)(2 x 1) (2( x 2 x) 1)(2 x 1)
dx du dx
(2 x 2 2 x 1)(2 x 1)
The Chain Rule

Example 6: For y u 2 3u and u 5t 1,
dy
find .
dt
dy
2u 3 and
du
du
5
dt
dy
dy du
(2u 3)(5)
dt
du dt
10u 15 10(5t 1) 15
50t 10 15 50t 25
The Chain Rule

Section Summary
k
The Extended Power Rule tells us that if
y f ( x) , then
d
[ f ( x)]k k[ f ( x)]k 1 f ( x).
dx
The composition of
with
is written
f ( x)
g ( x)
defined as
y
In general,
and is
The Chain Rule

The Chain Rule is used to differentiate a composition of functions.
If
Then
d
F ( x) [( f og )( x)] f g x g x .
dx
Higher Order Derivatives

OBJECTIVE
Find derivatives of higher order.

Given a formula for distance, find velocity
and acceleration.

Higher-Order Derivatives:
Consider the function given by
y f ( x ) x 5 3x 4 x.
Its derivative f is given by
y f ( x) 5 x 4 12 x 3 1.
The derivative function f can also be differentiated.
We can think of the derivative f as the rate of change
of the slope of the tangent lines of f . It can also be
regarded as the rate at which f x is changing.

Higher-Order Derivatives (continued):
We use the notation ffor

the derivative f .
That is,
d
f ( x)
f ( x)
dx
We call f the second derivative of f. For
y f ( x ) x 5 3 x 4 x,
the second derivative is given by
y f ( x) 20 x 3 36 x 2 .

Continuing in this manner, we have
f ( x) 60 x 2 72 x, the third derivative of f
f ( x) 120 x 72,
the fourth derivative of f
f ( x) 120,
the fifth derivative of f .
When notation like f x gets lengthy, we abbreviate

it using a symbol in parentheses. Thus f n x is the
nth derivative.

For y f ( x) x 3 x x, we have
5
f (3) ( x) 60 x 2 72 x,
f (4) ( x) 120 x 72,
f (5) ( x) 120,
f (6) ( x) 0, and
f
(n)
( x) 0, for any integer n 6.

Leibnizs notation for the second derivative of a
function given by y = f (x) is
d2y
d dy
, or

2
dx
dx dx
read the second derivative of y with respect to x.
The 2s in this notation are NOT exponents.

Higher-Order Derivatives (concluded):
If
y x 5 3 x 4 x,
then
dy
5 x 4 12 x 3 1,
dx
d4y
120 x 72,
4
dx
d2y
3
2
20
x
36
x
,
2
dx
d5y
120.
5
dx
d3y
2
60
x
72 x,
3
dx

d2y
1
.
Example 1: For y , find
2
dx
x
y x 1
dy
2
x
dx
d2y
2
3
2 x , or 3
2
dx
x

Example 2: For y ( x 10 x) , find y and y.
2
20
2
19
By the Extended Chain Rule, y 20( x 10 x) (2 x 10).
Using the Product Rule and Extended Chain Rule,

y 20( x 2 10 x )19 2 20(2 x 10) 19(
x 2 10 x)18 (2 x 10)
40( x 10 x )
2
18
40( x 2 10 x )18
40( x 2 10 x )18
y 40( x 2 10 x )18
( x 10 x) 19( x 5)(2 x 10)

x 10 x 19(2 x 20 x 50)
x 10 x 38 x 380 x 950)
39 x 390 x 950 .
2

Quick Check 1
a.) Find y:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
y 6 x 4 3 x 2
2
y 3
x
y (3 x 2 1) 2
b.) Find
d4
dx 4
1
x

a.) For the following problems, remember that y ( y)
(i)
y 6 x 4 3 x 2
2
y 24 x 3 6 x, y 72 x 6
(ii)
2
x3
y
(iii)
6
,
x4
24
x5
y (3 x 2 1) 2
y 2 3 x 2 1 6 x
36 x 3 12 x, y 78 x 2 12

Quick Check 1 Solution Concluded
b.) Find d 4
dx 4
d4
dx 4
1
x
1
x
d 3 1
3 2
dx x
d2
2
dx
24
5
x
2
x 3
d 6
4
dx x

DEFINITION:
The velocity of an object that is s(t) units from a
starting point at time t is given by
s (t h) s (t )
Velocity v(t ) s(t ) lim
h 0
h

DEFINITION:
Acceleration a(t ) v(t ) s(t ).

Example 3: For s(t) = 10t2 find v(t) and a(t), where s
is the distance from the starting point, in miles, and t is
in hours. Then, find the distance, velocity, and
acceleration when t = 4 hr.
v(t ) s(t ) 20t
a (t ) v(t ) s(t ) 20
s (4) 10(4) 160 mi
2
v(4) 20(4) 80 mi/hr

a (4) 20 mi/hr

Quick Check 2
A pebble is dropped from a hot-air balloon. Find how far it has
fallen, how fast it is falling, and its acceleration after 3.5 seconds. Let
, where t is in seconds, and s is in feet.
s (t ) 16t 2
Distance:
s (3.5) 16(3.5) 2 16(12.25) 196 feet
Velocity:
v t s t 32t
v(3.5) 32(3.5) 112 feet/second
Acceleration:
a t v t s t 32
a (3.5) 32 feet/second 2

Section Summary
The second derivative is the derivative of the first derivative of a
function. In symbols,f ( x) f x .
The second derivative describes the rate of change of the rate of
change. In other words, it describes the rate of change of the first
derivative.

A real-life example of a second derivative is acceleration. Ifs (t )
represents distance as a function of time of a moving object, then
the speed (velocity) of the object. Any change in
v(t ) s(tdescribes
)
the speed of the object is acceleration:a (t ) v(t ) s(t )
The common notation for the nth derivative of a function is
or
f ( n ) ( x)
dn
f ( x).
n
dx

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Differential Calculus

Average Rates of Change

Average Rates of Change

Average Rates of Change

Average Rates of Change

average rate of change as:

Average Rates of Change

Thus, the average rate of change is

Average Rates of Change

b.) Your car travels 250 miles on 20 gallons of gas.

82 76 degrees 6 degrees 2 degrees

Average Rates of Change

Average Rates of Change

Average Rates of Change

Average Rates of Change

difference quotient when:

Average Rates of Change

Average Rates of Change

form of the difference quotient.

Average Rates of Change

Average Rates of Change

Average Rates of Change

An average rate of change is the slope of a line between two points.

Average Rates of Change

The difference quotient is the same as the slope formula. Both

The difference quotient gives the average rate of change between

It is preferable to simplify a difference quotient algebraically

Differentiation Using Limits

Differentiation Using Limits of Difference

Differentiation Using Limits of Difference

Differentiation Using Limits of Difference

Differentiation Using Limits of Difference

Differentiation Using Limits of Difference

Differentiation Using Limits of Difference

f x 3 1.5 3 2.25 6.75

Differentiation Using Limits of Difference

Differentiation Using Limits of Difference

into our new derivative formula:

into our new derivative formula:

f (4) 3(4) 2 2(4) 48 8 56

Differentiation Using Limits of Difference

Differentiation Using Limits of Difference

Differentiation Using Limits of Difference

Differentiation Using Limits of Difference

Differentiation Using Limits of Difference

Differentiation Using Limits of Difference

Differentiation Using Limits of Difference

Differentiation Using Limits of Difference

Differentiation Using Limits of Difference

Differentiation Using Limits of Difference

Differentiation Using Limits of Difference

Differentiation Using Limits of Difference

However, continuity at a point x a does not imply

A function is not differentiable at a point x a if:

Differentiate using the Power Rule or the

Differentiation Techniques: The Power Rule and

Differentiation Techniques: The Power Rule and

Differentiation Techniques: The Power Rule and

Differentiation Techniques: The Power Rule and

Differentiation Techniques: The Power Rule and

b.) The reason d ( 2 ) 0 and not 2 , is because is a constant,

Differentiation Techniques: The Power Rule and

b) d x 0.7 0.7 x 0.71

Differentiation Techniques: The Power Rule and