Chapter 1

Chapter 1
Introduction
Introduction
1-1
Definition
What is a Computer Network
Interconnected Collection of autonomous Computers
Computer Networks are Ubiquitous
Cellular telephones
Cyber cafes
Home networks
Networked PCs in the office
Networked cars
Networked environmental sensors
Interplanetary Internet
Introduction
1-2
Chapter 1: Introduction
Our goal:
Overview:
Introduce basic
whats the Internet
terminology and
concepts
Pieces of Computer
Network
more depth, detail
later in course
approach:
use Internet as
example
whats a protocol?
network edge
network core
access net, physical media
Internet/ISP structure
performance: loss, delay
network modeling (Quantitative
Models)-transmission, propagation and

queuing delays
protocol layers, service models

Introduction
1-3
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
1.3 Network core
1.4 Network access and physical media
1.5 Internet structure and ISPs
1.6 Delay & loss in packet-switched networks
1.7 Protocol layers, service models
Introduction
1-4
Whats the Internet

Public Internet a specific computer network
Definition of Internet
Internet is a network of networks
Two views
Nuts and bolts view of the Internet
Basic hardware and software components that make up the Internet
Service View of the Internet

Describe the Internet in terms of a Networking Infrastructure that provides services to
distributed applications
Introduction
1-5
Whats the Internet: nuts and bolts view

millions of connected
computing devices (hosts

= end systems ):
Traditional
nontraditional
router
server
workstation
mobile
local ISP
network apps
communication links
running
Physical coaxial, twistedpair, fiber, copper

Wireless - radio, satellite
transmission rate (bps) =
bandwidth
Packet switches: forward

packets (chunks of data)
regional ISP
company
network
Introduction
1-6
Whats the Internet: nuts and bolts view (2)

Packet the chunk of
information
Types of packet switches
routers: forward packets

(chunks of data)
Link layer switches
router
server
mobile
local ISP
Route or Path
Packet switching
regional ISP
workstation
End systems share a path

or parts of a path, at the
same time
company
network
Introduction
1-7

The first packet switched
networks, created in 1970s,

are the earliest ancestors of
todays Internet.
ISP
router
server
workstation
mobile
local ISP
Each ISP is a network of

packet switches and
communication links.
Residential ISPs local
telephone company,
corporate ISPs, university
ISPs, other ISPs
regional ISP
company
network
Introduction
1-8
Services provided by ISP
Dialup
Broadband(cable/DSL)
High speed LAN access
Wireless Access
Internet access to content
providers (Connecting web
sites directly to the
Internet)
router
server
workstation
mobile
local ISP
regional ISP
Tier of ISP
Lower tier ISPs

National and international
upper tier ISPs
company
network
Introduction
1-9
protocols control sending,

receiving of msgs
Internet: network of
networks
e.g., TCP, IP, HTTP, FTP, PPP
router
server
workstation
mobile
local ISP
loosely hierarchical
public Internet versus
private intranet (firewall)
regional ISP
Internet standards
IETF: Internet Engineering Task

Force
RFC: Request for comments
IEEE 802 LAN/MAN standards
company
network
Introduction
1-10
Whats the Internet: a service view
communication
infrastructure enables
distributed applications:
Web, email, games, ecommerce, file sharing
communication services
provided to apps:
connection-oriented reliable
Reliable
Connectionless unreliable
No guarantees
Introduction
1-11
Whats the Internet: a service view (2)

Currently, the Internet does
not provide a service that

makes promises about:
How long it will take to deliver

the data from sender to
receiver
Increase the access
transmission rate
Advances in the nuts and bolts
components of the Internet

are being driven by the needs
of new applications
Internet is an infrastructure
in which new applications are
being constantly invented and
deployed
Introduction
1-12
Whats a protocol?
human protocols:
What do we do when
we want to ask
someone for the time
of day?
whats the time?
I have a question
introductions
specific msgs sent
specific actions taken
when msgs received, or
other events
Hi
Hi
Got the
time?
2:00
time
If people run different protocols
time
Introduction
1-13
Whats a protocol? (2)

network protocols:
machines rather than
humans
all communication
activity in Internet
governed by protocols
H/W implemented
protocols in the NIC
Congestion control
protocols in end
systems
Protocols in routers
TCP connection
req
TCP connection
response
Get http://www.awl.com/kurose-ross
<file>
time
time
Introduction
1-14

Example of network
protocols:
What happens when you
make a request to a web
server.
Web client
Web server
TCP connection
req
TCP connection
response
<file>
time
time
Introduction
1-15

a human protocol and a computer network protocol:
Hi
TCP connection
req
Hi
TCP connection
response
Got the
time?
2:00
<file>
time
Introduction
1-16

A protocol defines the format and the order of
msgs
exchanged
between
two
or
more
communicating entities, as well as the actions

taken on the transmission and/or receipt of a
message or other event.
Introduction
1-17
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.2 Network edge
1.3 Network core
Introduction
1-18
A closer look at network structure:

network edge: applications
and hosts
network core:
routers
network of networks
access networks, physical
media: communication links
Introduction
1-19
The network edge:

end systems (hosts):
Computers connected to the

Internet
The Internets end systems
include
Desktop computers
Servers
Mobile computers
Other devices
Thin clients
Household appliances etc.
Hosts - run application programs

e.g. Web, email
at edge of network
Hosts client and server
Introduction
1-20
The network edge (2):

client/server model (In
the conetext of
networking software)
client host requests, receives

service from always-on server
e.g. Web browser/server;
email client/server
Client server application are
distributed applications
Routers, links and other nuts
and bolts of the Internet
serve as a black box.
Introduction
1-21
The network edge (3):

peer-peer model:
Not pure client programs

interacting with not pure
server program
minimal (or no) use of
dedicated servers
Popular P2P file sharing
application e.g. KaZaA
Introduction
1-22
Network edge: Services

End systems use the Internet to communicate with
each other.
What are the characteristics of the communication
services that the Internet provides to its end
systems.
TCP/IP networks and in particular the Internet,
provide two types of services to end-systems
applications:
Connection-oriented service
Connectionless service
Introduction
1-23
Network edge: connection-oriented service

Connection establishment, Data transfer, Connection release
Goal: data transfer
between end systems

handshaking: setup
(prepare for) data
transfer ahead of time
Hello, hello back human

protocol
set up state in two
communicating hosts
TCP - Transmission
Control Protocol
Internets connectionoriented service
TCP service [RFC 793]
reliable, in-order bytestream data transfer
flow control:
loss: acknowledgements
and retransmissions
sender wont overwhelm
receiver
congestion control:
senders slow down sending

rate when network
congested
Introduction
1-24
Network edge: connectionless service

Goal: data transfer
between end systems
same as before!
No handshaking
Data can be delivered

sooner/faster,
Transaction-oriented
applications
UDP - User Datagram
Protocol [RFC 768]:
connectionless
unreliable data transfer
no flow control
no congestion control
Apps using TCP:

HTTP (Web), FTP (file
transfer), Telnet
(remote login), SMTP
(email)
Apps using UDP:

streaming media,
teleconferencing, DNS,
Internet telephony
Introduction
1-25
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.2 Network edge
1.3 Network core
Introduction
1-26
The Network Core

Definition - mesh of
interconnected routers
Two fundamental
approaches to building a
network core
the fundamental question:

how is data transferred
through net?
circuit switching:
dedicated circuit per
call: telephone net
packet-switching: data
sent thru net in discrete
chunks
Introduction
1-27
The Network Core (2)
Analogy
Consider two restaurants

One, that requires reservations
Another, that neither requires reservations nor accepts them
Example of Circuit Switched networks Telephone

Networks
Example of Packet Switched Networks Internet
Not all telecommunication networks can be neatly
classified as pure circuit-switched networks or pure
packet-switched networks
Introduction
1-28
Network Core: Circuit Switching

End-end resources
reserved for call
link bandwidth, switch
capacity
dedicated resources:
no sharing
circuit-like
(guaranteed)
performance
call setup required
Introduction
1-29
Network Core: Circuit Switching

network resources
(e.g., bandwidth)
divided into pieces
pieces allocated to calls
idle if
not used by owning call
(no sharing)
resource piece
dividing link bandwidth
into pieces
frequency division
Ex telephone
networks, FM
radio stations
time division
Introduction
1-30
Circuit Switching: FDM and TDM

Example:
FDM
4 users
frequency
time
TDM
frequency
time
Introduction
1-31
Numerical example
How long does it take to send a file of
640,000 bits from host A to host B over a

circuit-switched network?
All links are 1.536 Mbps
Each link uses TDM with 24 slots
500 msec to establish end-to-end circuit
Work it out!
Introduction
1-32
Network Core: Packet Switching

each end-end data stream
(messages) divided into packets
travel through packet switches in
store-and-forward fashion
user A, B packets share network
resources
each packet uses full link
bandwidth
resources used as needed
Bandwidth division into pieces

Dedicated allocation
Resource reservation
resource contention:
aggregate resource
demand can exceed
amount available
congestion: packets
queue, wait for link use
store and forward:
packets move one hop
at a time
Node receives complete

packet before forwarding
Introduction
1-33
Network Core: Packet Switching (2)

Store-and-forward delay
Store-and-forward packet switches introduce a store
and-forward delay
This delay is proportional to the packets length in bits.
In particular
o If a packet consists of L bits and
o The packet is to be forwarded onto an outbound link of R bps,
o Then store-and-forward delay at the switch is L/R seconds
Introduction
1-34
Network Core: Packet Switching (3)

Queuing delays
For each attached link, the packet switch has an output
buffer (output queue)
The output queue stores the packets
Packets may suffer output buffer queuing delays.
These delays are variable and depend on the level of
congestion in the network
Finite buffer space
Packet loss
Introduction
1-35
Packet Switching: A Simple PacketSwitched Network

10 Mb/s
Ethernet
A
B
statistical multiplexing
1.5 Mb/s
queue of packets
waiting for output
link
Congestion if the arrival rate of packets to the

switch exceeds the rate at which the switch can
forward packets across the 1.5 Mbps output link.
Introduction
1-36
Packet Switching:
L
A
How long it takes to send a packet of L bits from
one host to another across a packet switched

network
Let us suppose that there are Q links between A and E,

each of rate R bps.
Assume that queuing delays and end-to-end propagation
delays are negligible and that there is no connection
establishment.
The packet must first be transmitted onto the first link
emanating from host A; this takes L/R seconds.
It must then be transmitted on each of the Q 1
remaining links, that is, it must be stored-and-forwarded
Q 1 times.
Thus the total delay is QL/R.
Introduction
1-37
Packet-switching: store-and-forward
L
R
Takes L/R seconds to
transmit (push out)

packet of L bits on to
link or R bps
Entire packet must
arrive at router before
it can be transmitted
on next link: store and
forward
delay = 3L/R
Example:
L = 7.5 Mbits
R = 1.5 Mbps
delay = 15 sec
Introduction
1-38
Packet switching versus circuit switching

Packet switching is not suitable for real-time
services
For example telephone calls, video conference calls

This is due to its variable and unpredictable end-to-end
delays
Due primarily to variable and unpredictable queuing delays
Proponents of packet switching argue that

It offers better sharing of bandwidth than circuit
switching.
It is simpler, more efficient and less costly to implement
than circuit switching.
Introduction
1-39
Packet switching versus circuit switching (2)

Why is packet switching more efficient?
It allows more users to use network.
Great for bursty data
resource sharing
simpler, no call setup allocates link use on demand
Introduction
1-40

It allows more users to use network!
1 Mb/s link
each user:
100 kb/s when

active
active 10% of time
Inactive 90% of
time, transmitting
no data
N users
1 Mbps link
Introduction
1-41

circuit-switching:
100 kbps must be

reserved for each user
at all times.
Eg., with circuitswitched TDM, if a
one-second frame is
divided into 10 time
slots of 100 ms each,
then each user would
be allocated one time
slot per frame.
The link can support
only 10 simultaneous
users
(1
mbps/100kbps)
N users
1 Mbps link
Introduction
1-42

packet switching:
with 35 users, probability > 10 active less than .0004

The probability that a specific user is active is 0.1 (i.e. 10 percent)
The probability that at any given time , exactly n users are
transmitting simultaneously =
The probability that at any given time , exactly 10 users are
transmitting simultaneously =
The probability that there are 11 or more users transmitting
simultaneously =
= 0.0004
When there are 10 or fewer simultaneously active users, the
probability = 1 - 0.0004 = 0.9996 , the aggregate arrival rate of data
is less than or equal to 1 Mbps.
Introduction
1-43

Great for bursty data
Example - Assume 1mbps link rate
Suppose there are 10 users and that user one suddenly generates
one thousand 1000-bit packets, while other users remain idle and
do not generate packets.
Circuit switching
With TDM circuit switching with 10 slots per frame and each slot consisting of
1000 bits, the active user can only use its one time slot per frame to transmit
data, while the remaining nine slots in each frame remain idle.
It will be 10 seconds before all of the active users one million bits of data has
been transmitted.
Packet switching
The active user can continuously send its packets at the full link rate of 1 mbps,
since there are no other users generating packets that need to be multiplexed
with the active users packets.
All of the active users data will be transmitted within 1 second.
Introduction
1-44

resource sharing
simpler, no call setup allocates link use on
demand
Introduction
1-45
Packet Switching: Statistical Multiplexing

Circuit switching
Preallocates use of the transmission link
regardless of demand, with allocated but
unneeded link time going unused.
Packet switching
Allocates link use on demand

Link transmission capacity will be shared on a
packet-by-packet basis only among those users
who have packets that need to be transmitted
over the link.
Introduction
1-46
Packet Switching: Statistical Multiplexing (2)

Statistical multiplexing
Such on-demand (rather than preallocated)
sharing of resources is referred to as the
statistical multiplexing of resources.
Introduction
1-47
Packet Switching: Statistical Multiplexing (3)

10 Mb/s
Ethernet
A
B
statistical multiplexing
1.5 Mb/s
queue of packets
waiting for output
link
Sequence of A & B packets does not have fixed

pattern statistical multiplexing.
In TDM each host gets same slot in revolving TDM
frame.
Introduction
1-48
Packet-switched networks: forwarding
Goal: move packets through routers from source to

destination
well study several path selection (i.e. routing) algorithms
datagram network:
destination address in packet determines next hop, forwarding

table, Analogous to car driver who does not use maps
Ex: Routers in the Internet, Analogous to Postal Service
Do not maintain connection state information in their switches
routes may change during session
analogy: driving, asking directions
virtual circuit network:
each packet carries tag (virtual circuit ID), tag determines next
hop, Translation Table
Ex : X.25, frame relay, ATM
fixed path determined at call setup time, remains fixed thru call
routers maintain connection-state information
Introduction
1-49
Network Taxonomy
Telecommunication
networks
Circuit-switched
networks
FDM
TDM
Packet-switched
networks
Networks
with VCs
Datagram
Networks
Introduction
1-50
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.2 Network edge
1.3 Network core
Introduction
1-51
Access networks and physical media

Access Networks:
The physical link(s) that
connect an end system to its

edge router, which is the
first router on a path from
the end system to any other
distant end system.
The access network provides
the infrastructure to
connect the customer
premises into the network
infrastructure.
Figure thick red lines
Introduction
1-52
Access networks and physical media

Q: How to connect end
systems to edge router?
residential access nets
Company/institutional
access networks (school,
company)
Wireless access mobile access networks
Keep in mind:
bandwidth (bits per
second) of access
network?
shared or dedicated?
Introduction
1-53
Residential access:
Dialup via modem
Broadband access technologies
DSL
HFC
Introduction
1-54
Residential access: Dialup

Dialup via modem
The access network is simply

a pair of modems along with a
point-to-point dial-up phone
line.
up to 56Kbps direct access to
router (often less)
Cant surf and phone at same
time: cant be always on
Introduction
1-55
Residential access: DSL

ADSL: asymmetric digital
subscriber line
Surf and phone at the same
time always on
Higher bit rates
up to 1 Mbps upstream (today typically < 256 kbps)
up to 8 Mbps downstream (today typically < 1 Mbps)
FDM: 50 kHz - 1 MHz for downstream
4 kHz - 50 kHz for upstream
0 kHz - 4 kHz for ordinary telephone
Introduction
1-56
Residential access: DSL (2)

The actual transmission rate available to the user is
a function of
The distance between the home modem and the
ISP modem
The gauge of the twisted pair line
The degree of electrical interference
DSL has been designed for short distances between
residential and ISP modems, allowing for higher
transmission rates than dial up access.
Introduction
1-57
Residential access: HFC

Extension of the current cable network (Figure)
Cable modems
HFC: hybrid fiber coax
asymmetric: up to 30Mbps downstream, 2 Mbps
upstream
Shared broadcast medium
Distributed multiple access protocol
network of cable and fiber attaches homes to
ISP router
homes share access to router
deployment: available via cable TV companies

Services always on
Introduction
1-58
Residential access: cable modems
Introduction
1-59
Cable Network Architecture: Overview
Typically 500 to 5,000 homes
cable headend
cable distribution
network (simplified)
home
Introduction
1-60
cable headend
cable distribution
network (simplified)
home
Introduction
1-61

server(s)
cable headend
cable distribution
network
home
Introduction
1-62

FDM:
V
I
D
E
O
V
I
D
E
O
V
I
D
E
O
V
I
D
E
O
V
I
D
E
O
V
I
D
E
O
D
A
T
A
D
A
T
A
C
O
N
T
R
O
L
Channels
cable headend
cable distribution
network
home
Introduction
1-63
Company access: local area networks

company/univ local area
network (LAN) connects

end system to edge router
Ethernet:
shared or dedicated link
connects end system
and router
10 Mbps, 100Mbps,
Gigabit Ethernet
Twisted pair or coaxial cable

Shared vs Switched
LANs: chapter 5
Introduction
1-64
Wireless access networks

wireless access
network connects end system
to router
shared
via base station aka access

point
wireless LANs:
802.11b (WiFi): 11 Mbps
wider-area wireless access
provided by telco operator
3G ~ 384 kbps
Will it happen??
WAP/GPRS in Europe
router
base
station
mobile
hosts
Introduction
1-65
Home networks
Typical home network components:
ADSL or cable modem
router/firewall/NAT
Ethernet
wireless access
point
to/from
cable
headend
cable
modem
router/
firewall
Ethernet
wireless
laptops
wireless
access
point
Introduction
1-66
Physical Media
Bit: propagates between
transmitter/rcvr pairs
physical link: what lies
between transmitter &
receiver
guided media:
signals propagate in solid

media: copper, fiber, coax
Twisted Pair (TP)

two insulated copper
wires
Category 3: traditional
phone wires, 10 Mbps
Ethernet
Category 5:
100Mbps Ethernet
unguided media:
signals propagate freely,
e.g., radio
Introduction
1-67
Physical Media : Twisted Pair

Twisted Pair (TP)
Least expensive, most commonly used, guided
Used by telephone networks
Construction
Two insulated copper wires

twisted to reduce electrical interference
Types STP & UTP

Data rates depends on
Thickness and distance between transmitter and receiver
UTP
Category 3: traditional phone wires, 10 Mbps Ethernet
Category 5:
100Mbps Ethernet
Introduction
1-68
Physical Media: coax

Coaxial cable:
two concentric copper conductors
High bit rates
bidirectional
baseband:
single channel on cable
legacy Ethernet
broadband:
multiple channel on cable

HFC
Introduction
1-69
Physical Media: fiber

Fiber optic cable:
glass fiber carrying light pulses, each pulse a bit
high-speed operation:
high-speed point-to-point transmission (e.g., 5 Gps)
low error rate: repeaters spaced far apart ; immune to
electromagnetic noise
Backbone of the Internet
High cost of optical devices transmitters, receivers and
switches
Introduction
1-70
Physical Media: Radio

Electromagnetic spectrum
Features
No physical wires,
can penetrate walls,
provide connectivity to mobile users
Carry signal for long distances
Characteristics of a radio channel depend upon
Propagation environment
distance
Introduction
1-71
Physical Media: Radio (2)

Environmental considerations determines
Path loss
Shadow fading
Multipath fading
Interference
Introduction
1-72
Physical Media: Radio (3)

Types
Terrestrial
Satellite
Introduction
1-73
Physical media: terrestrial

terrestrial microwave
e.g. up to 45 Mbps channels
Local area - LAN (e.g., Wifi)
2Mbps, 11Mbps
wide-area (e.g., cellular)
e.g. 3G: hundreds of kbps
satellite
up to 50Mbps channel (or multiple smaller channels)
270 msec end-end delay
geosynchronous versus low altitude
Introduction
1-74
Physical media: satellite

Ground stations and satellite
Two frequency bands
Repeaters
Rates (gbps)
Two types of satellites
geosynchronous versus low altitude
Geosynchronous
Stationary at 36000 kms
270 msec end-end delay
Backbone of telephone networks and Internet
Introduction
1-75
Physical media: satellite (2)

Low-altitude satellites
Closer to earth
Not stationary
Introduction
1-76
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.2 Network edge
1.3 Network core
Introduction
1-77
Internet structure: network of networks

End Systems connected through Access Networks
Internet is a network of networks
Tiered hierarchy of ISPs
at center: tier-1 ISPs Internet Backbone networks
national/international coverage
Link speeds 655 mbps or higher, 2.5 to 10 gbps
treat each other as equals
Tier-1 providers
Tier-1
providers
interconnect
(peer)
privately
Tier 1 ISP
Tier 1 ISP
NAP
also interconnect
at public network
access points
(NAPs)
Tier 1 ISP
POP Points
of Presence
Introduction
1-78
Tier-1 ISP: e.g., Sprint

Sprint US backbone network
Introduction
1-79

Tier-2 ISPs: smaller (often regional or national) ISPs
Connect to one or more tier-1 ISPs, possibly other tier-2 ISPs
Tier-2
ISP pays
tier-1 ISP for
connectivity to
rest of Internet
tier-2 ISP is
customer of
tier-1 provider
Tier-2 ISP
Tier-2 ISP
Tier 1 ISP
Tier 1 ISP
Tier-2 ISP
NAP
Tier 1 ISP
Tier-2 ISPs
also peer
privately with
each other,
interconnect
at NAP
Tier-2 ISP
Tier-2 ISP
Introduction
1-80

Tier-3 ISPs and local ISPs
last hop (access) network (closest to end systems)
local
ISP
Local and tier3 ISPs are
customers of
higher tier
ISPs
connecting
them to rest
of Internet
Tier 3
ISP
Tier-2 ISP
local
ISP
local
ISP
local
ISP
Tier-2 ISP
Tier 1 ISP
Tier 1 ISP
Tier-2 ISP
local
local
ISP
ISP
NAP
Tier 1 ISP
Tier-2 ISP
local
ISP
Tier-2 ISP
local
ISP
Introduction
1-81

a packet passes through many networks!
local
ISP
Tier 3
ISP
Tier-2 ISP
local
ISP
local
ISP
local
ISP
Tier-2 ISP
Tier 1 ISP
Tier 1 ISP
Tier-2 ISP
local
local
ISP
ISP
NAP
Tier 1 ISP
Tier-2 ISP
local
ISP
Tier-2 ISP
local
ISP
Introduction
1-82
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.2 Network edge
1.3 Network core
1.8 History
Introduction
1-83
Introduction
What can happen to a
packet as it travels
from its source to its
destination?
router
server
workstation
mobile
local ISP
Types of delays
Nodal processing delay
Queuing delay
Transmission delay
Propagation delay
Total Nodal Delay
regional ISP
company
network
Introduction
1-84
How do loss and delay occur?

packets queue in router buffers
packet arrival rate to link exceeds output link capacity
packets queue, wait for turn
packet being transmitted (delay)
R1
A
B
R2
packets queueing (delay)

free (available) buffers: arriving packets
dropped (loss) if no free buffers
Introduction
1-85
Four sources of packet delay

1. processing delay:
2. queueing delay
Time required to examine

the packets header and to
determine where to direct
the packet
Time needed to check bit
level errors
Microsecond or less
time waiting at output link

for transmission
variable
depends on queue/congestion
level of router
Microseconds to milliseconds
transmission
propagation
nodal
processing
queueing
Introduction
1-86
Delay in packet-switched networks

4. Propagation delay:
3. Transmission delay:
Amount of time required to
Time required to propagate from
push (that is, transmit) all of

the packets bits into the link.
R=link bandwidth (bps)
L=packet length (bits)
time to send bits into link =
L/R
Microseconds to milliseconds
R1
transmission
the beginning of the link to the

router R2 is the propagation delay
d = length of physical link
s = propagation speed in medium
(~2x108 m/sec)
propagation delay = d/s
milliseconds
Note: s and R are very

different quantities!
propagation
R2
B
nodal
processing
queueing
Introduction
1-87
Caravan analogy
100 km
ten-car
caravan
toll
booth
10 cars
Cars propagate at
100 km/hr
Toll booth takes 12 sec to
service a car (transmission
time)
car~bit; caravan ~ packet
Q: How long until caravan is
lined up before 2nd toll booth?
100 km
toll
booth
Time to push entire
caravan through toll booth

onto highway = 12*10 = 120
sec
Time for last car to
propagate from 1st to 2nd
toll booth: 100km/
(100km/hr)= 1 hr
A: 62 minutes
Introduction
1-88
Caravan analogy (more)

100 km
ten-car
caravan
toll
booth
Cars now propagate at
1000 km/hr
Toll booth now takes 1
min to service a car
Q: Will cars arrive to
2nd booth before all
cars serviced at 1st
booth?
100 km
toll
booth
Yes! After 7 min, 1st car
at 2nd booth and 3 cars

still at 1st booth.
1st bit of packet can
arrive at 2nd router
before packet is fully
transmitted at 1st router!
Introduction
1-89
Nodal delay
d nodal d proc d queue d trans d prop
Contribution of these delay components
dproc = processing delay
typically a few microsecs or less

Max throughput
dqueue = queuing delay
depends on congestion
dtrans = transmission delay
= L/R, significant for low-speed links
dprop = propagation delay
a few microsecs to hundreds of msecs

Two routers in same campus or through satellites
Introduction
1-90
Queueing delay (revisited)

Variable
Statistical measures
Average queuing delay

Variance of queuing delay
The probability that the queuing delay exceeds some specified value
When is queuing delay large and when it insignificant?
Rate at which traffic arrives at the queue

Transmission rate of the link
Nature of the arriving traffic (whether Bursty)
a=average packet arrival rate (packets/sec)

R=transmission rate i.e. link bandwidth (bps)
L=packet length (bits)
The average rate at which bits arrive at the queue=La bits/sec
Assume that the queue is very big

Introduction
1-91
Queueing delay (revisited) (2)

traffic intensity = La/R
La/R > 1: delays become large
La/R 1: nature of arriving
packets impacts the queuing delay

o Packets arrive periodically
o Packets arrive in bursts but
periodically
o Arrival process to a queue is random
La/R ~ 0: average queueing delay small

La/R ~ 1: average queuing delay gets larger
Introduction
1-92
Packet loss
queue (aka buffer) preceding link in buffer
has finite capacity

when packet arrives to full queue, packet is
dropped (aka lost)
The fraction of lost packets increases as
the traffic intensity increases
lost packet may be retransmitted by
previous node, by source end system, or not
retransmitted at all
Introduction
1-93
End-to-End Delay
Nodal delay
Delay from source to destination
Suppose
N-1 routers between source and destination
Network is uncongested
Queuing delay negligible
dproc = processing delay
R bps=transmission rate
dtrans =L/R
dprop = propagation delay
dend-end = N (dproc + dtrans + dprop )

Introduction
1-94
Real Internet delays and routes

What do real Internet delay & loss look like?
Traceroute program: provides delay measurement
from source to router along end-end Internet path

towards destination.
Source host sends multiple, special packets towards
the destination, these packets pass through a series
of routers.
When a router receives one of these special packets,
it sends a short message back to the source.
This message contains the name and address of the
routers.
Introduction
1-95
Real Internet delays and routes (2)

Example Reconstruct routes and determine Round
Trip delays
Suppose there are (N 1) routers between the source and

destination
Then the source will send N special packets into the network
(marked 1 through N)
When the nth router receives the nth packet marked n, the
router does not forward the packet towards its destination,
but instead sends a message back to the source
When the destination host receives the Nth packet, it too
returns a message back to the source
The source records the time that elapses between when it
sends a packets and when it receives the corresponding
return message; it also records name and address of the
router (or the destination host) that returns the message
Introduction
1-96

For all i:
sends three packets that will reach router i on path
towards destination
router i will return packets to sender
sender times interval between transmission and reply.
3 probes
3 probes
3 probes
Introduction
1-97

traceroute: gaia.cs.umass.edu to www.eurecom.fr
Three round trip delay measements from
gaia.cs.umass.edu to cs-gw.cs.umass.edu
1 cs-gw (128.119.240.254) 1 ms 1 ms 2 ms
2 border1-rt-fa5-1-0.gw.umass.edu (128.119.3.145) 1 ms 1 ms 2 ms
3 cht-vbns.gw.umass.edu (128.119.3.130) 6 ms 5 ms 5 ms
4 jn1-at1-0-0-19.wor.vbns.net (204.147.132.129) 16 ms 11 ms 13 ms
5 jn1-so7-0-0-0.wae.vbns.net (204.147.136.136) 21 ms 18 ms 18 ms
6 abilene-vbns.abilene.ucaid.edu (198.32.11.9) 22 ms 18 ms 22 ms
7 nycm-wash.abilene.ucaid.edu (198.32.8.46) 22 ms 22 ms 22 ms trans-oceanic
8 62.40.103.253 (62.40.103.253) 104 ms 109 ms 106 ms
link
9 de2-1.de1.de.geant.net (62.40.96.129) 109 ms 102 ms 104 ms
10 de.fr1.fr.geant.net (62.40.96.50) 113 ms 121 ms 114 ms
11 renater-gw.fr1.fr.geant.net (62.40.103.54) 112 ms 114 ms 112 ms
12 nio-n2.cssi.renater.fr (193.51.206.13) 111 ms 114 ms 116 ms
13 nice.cssi.renater.fr (195.220.98.102) 123 ms 125 ms 124 ms
14 r3t2-nice.cssi.renater.fr (195.220.98.110) 126 ms 126 ms 124 ms
15 eurecom-valbonne.r3t2.ft.net (193.48.50.54) 135 ms 128 ms 133 ms
16 194.214.211.25 (194.214.211.25) 126 ms 128 ms 126 ms
17 * * *
* means no reponse (probe lost, router not replying)
18 * * *
19 fantasia.eurecom.fr (193.55.113.142) 132 ms 128 ms 136 ms
Introduction
1-98
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.2 Network edge
1.3 Network core
Introduction
1-99
Protocol Layers
Networks are complex!
many pieces:
hosts
routers
links of various
media
applications
protocols
hardware,
software
Question:
Is there any hope of
organizing structure of
network?
Or at least our discussion of
networks?
Introduction
1-100
Organization of air travel (Airline System)

ticket (purchase)
ticket (complain)
baggage (check)
baggage (claim)
gates (load)
gates (unload)
runway takeoff
runway landing
airplane routing
airplane routing
airplane routing
a series of steps/actions
functionality
Introduction
1-101
Layering of airline functionality

ticket (purchase)
ticket (complain)
ticket
baggage (check)
baggage (claim
baggage
gates (load)
gates (unload)
gate
runway (takeoff)
runway (land)
takeoff/landing
airplane routing
airplane routing
airplane routing
departure
airport
airplane routing
airplane routing
intermediate air-traffic
control centers
arrival
airport
Layers: each layer implements a service

via its own internal-layer actions
relying on services provided by layer below
Introduction
1-102
Why layering?
Dealing with complex systems:
explicit structure allows identification,
relationship of complex systems pieces

layered reference model for discussion
modularization eases maintenance, updating of
system
change of implementation of layers service
transparent to rest of system
e.g., change in gate procedure doesnt affect
rest of system
Introduction
1-103
Drawback of layering?
One layer may duplicate lower layer functionality
For example, many protocol stacks provide error
recovery on both a link basis and an end-to-end basis.
Functionality at one layer may need information
that is present only in another layer; this violates

the goal of separation of layers.
Introduction
1-104
Internet protocol stack

When taken together, the protocols of
various layers are called the protocol stack
application: supporting network
applications
FTP, SMTP, HTTP, DNS
transport: host-host data transfer

TCP, UDP
network: routing of datagrams from
source to destination
IP, routing protocols
link: data transfer between neighboring
network elements
application
transport
network
link
physical
PPP, Ethernet
physical: bits on the wire
Introduction
1-105
source
message
segment Ht
datagram Hn Ht
frame Hl Hn Ht
M
M
M
M
Encapsulation
application
transport
network
link
physical
Hl Hn Ht
link
physical
Hl Hn Ht
switch
destination
M
Ht
Hn Ht
Hl Hn Ht
application
transport
network
link
physical
Hn Ht
Hl Hn Ht
network
link
physical
Hn Ht
Hl Hn Ht
router
Introduction
1-106
Introduction: Summary
Covered a ton of material!
Internet overview
whats a protocol?
network edge, core, access
network
packet-switching versus
circuit-switching
Internet/ISP structure
performance: loss, delay
layering and service
models
history
You now have:

context, overview,
feel of networking
more depth, detail to
follow!
Introduction
1-107
End
Introduction
1-108

Chapter 1 - Computer Networks and The Internet

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Chapter 1 - Computer Networks and The Internet

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whats the Internet

Models)-transmission, propagation and

protocol layers, service models

Whats the Internet

Service View of the Internet

Whats the Internet: nuts and bolts view

computing devices (hosts

Physical coaxial, twistedpair, fiber, copper

Packet switches: forward

Whats the Internet: nuts and bolts view (2)

routers: forward packets

End systems share a path

Whats the Internet: nuts and bolts view (3)

networks, created in 1970s,

Each ISP is a network of

Whats the Internet: nuts and bolts view (4)

Services provided by ISP

Lower tier ISPs

Whats the Internet: nuts and bolts view (5)

protocols control sending,

e.g., TCP, IP, HTTP, FTP, PPP

IETF: Internet Engineering Task

RFC: Request for comments

IEEE 802 LAN/MAN standards

Whats the Internet: a service view

Web, email, games, ecommerce, file sharing

Whats the Internet: a service view (2)

not provide a service that

How long it will take to deliver

Advances in the nuts and bolts

components of the Internet

If people run different protocols

Whats a protocol? (2)

Whats a protocol? (3)

Whats a protocol? (4)

Whats a protocol? (5)

communicating entities, as well as the actions

A closer look at network structure:

access networks, physical

media: communication links

The network edge:

Computers connected to the

Hosts - run application programs

The network edge (2):

client host requests, receives

The network edge (3):

Not pure client programs

Network edge: Services

Network edge: connection-oriented service

Goal: data transfer

between end systems

Hello, hello back human

Internets connectionoriented service

TCP service [RFC 793]

reliable, in-order bytestream data transfer

senders slow down sending

Network edge: connectionless service

between end systems

Data can be delivered

UDP - User Datagram

Protocol [RFC 768]:

Apps using TCP: