Measurement and Control: Training Program in

Training Program in
Measurement
andcontrol
Prepared by
Eng. Ibrahim Taher
June / 2011
KEEP OUR EFFORTS ROLLING

?Sensors
A device which provides a usable output in response to a
specified measurand
A sensor acquires a physical quantity and converts it into a signal

suitable for processing (e.g. optical, electrical, mechanical)
Nowadays common sensors convert measurement of physical
phenomena into an electrical signal
Active element of a sensor is called a transducer

?Transducer
A device which converts one form of energy to another
When input is a physical quantity and output electrical Sensor
When input is electrical and output a physical quantity Actuator
Sensors Actuators e.g. Piezoelectric:

Force -> voltage
Physical Electrical Input
Voltage-> Force
parameter
=> Ultrasound!
Electrical Output Physical Output
Microphone, Loud Speaker

Commonly Detectable Phenomena
Biological
Chemical
Electric
Electromagnetic
Heat/Temperature
Magnetic
Mechanical motion (displacement, velocity, acceleration, etc.)
Optical
Radioactivity

Common Conversion Methods
Physical
thermo-electric, thermo-elastic, thermo-magnetic, thermo-optic
photo-electric, photo-elastic, photo-magnetic,
electro-elastic, electro-magnetic
magneto-electric
Chemical
chemical transport, physical transformation, electro-chemical
Biological
biological transformation, physical transformation

Commonly Measured Quantities

Stimulus Quantity
Acoustic Wave (amplitude, phase, polarization),
Spectrum, Wave Velocity
Biological & Chemical Fluid Concentrations (Gas or Liquid)
Electric Charge, Voltage, Current, Electric Field
(amplitude, phase, polarization), Conductivity,
Permittivity
Magnetic Magnetic Field (amplitude, phase, polarization),
Flux, Permeability
Optical Refractive Index, Reflectivity, Absorption
Thermal Temperature, Flux, Specific Heat, Thermal
Conductivity
Mechanical Position, Velocity, Acceleration, Force, Strain,
Stress, Pressure, Torque

: Physical Principles
Amperess Law
A current carrying conductor in a magnetic field experiences a
force (e.g. galvanometer)
Curie-Weiss Law
There is a transition temperature at which ferromagnetic
materials exhibit paramagnetic behavior
Faradays Law of Induction

A coil resist a change in magnetic field by generating an
opposing voltage/current (e.g. transformer)
Photoconductive Effect
When light strikes certain semiconductor materials, the
resistance of the material decreases (e.g. photoresistor)

Choosing a Sensor

Need for Sensors
Sensors are pervasive. They are embedded in our bodies,

automobiles, airplanes, cellular telephones, radios, chemical plants,
industrial plants and countless other applications.
Without the use of sensors, there would be no automation !!

PHASE LINEARITY
Describe how well a system preserves the phase relationship
between frequency components of the input
Phase linearity: =kf
Distortion of signal
Amplitude linearity
Phase linearity

SENSOR TECHNOLOGY -
TERMINOLOGY
Transducer is a device which transforms energy from one type to
another, even if both energy types are in the same domain.
Typical energy domains are mechanical, electrical, chemical, magnetic,

optical and thermal.
Transducer can be further divided into Sensors, which monitors a

system and Actuators, which impose an action on the system.
Sensors are devices which monitor a parameter of a system, hopefully

without disturbing that parameter.

CATEGORIZATION OF SENSOR
Classification based on physical phenomena
Mechanical: strain gage, displacement (LVDT), velocity (laser
vibrometer), accelerometer, tilt meter, viscometer, pressure, etc.
Thermal: thermal couple
Optical: camera, infrared sensor
Others
Classification based on measuring mechanism
Resistance sensing, capacitance sensing, inductance sensing,
piezoelectricity, etc.
Materials capable of converting of one form of energy to another are at
the heart of many sensors.
Invention of new materials, e.g., smart materials, would permit the
design of new types of sensors.

PARADIGM OF SENSING
SYSTEM DESIGN

INSTRUMENTATION
CONSIDERATIONS
Sensor technology;
Sensor data collection topologies;
Data communication;
Power supply;
Data synchronization;
Environmental parameters and influence;
Remote data analysis.

MEASUREMENT
Physical Measurement
phenomenon Output
Measurement output:
interaction between a sensor and the environment surrounding the sensor
compound response of multiple inputs
Measurement errors:
System errors: imperfect design of the measurement setup and the
approximation, can be corrected by calibration
Random errors: variations due to uncontrolled variables. Can be reduced
by averaging.

SENSORS
Definition: a device for sensing a physical variable of a physical system
or an environment
Classification of Sensors
1.Mechanical quantities: displacement, Strain, rotation velocity, acceleration,
pressure, force/torque, twisting, weight, flow
2.Thermal quantities: temperature, heat.
3.Electromagnetic/optical quantities: voltage, current, frequency phase;
visual/images, light; magnetism.
4.Chemical quantities: moisture, pH value

SPECIFICATIONS OF SENSOR
Accuracy: error between the result of a measurement and the true
value being measured.
Resolution: the smallest increment of measure that a device can
make.
Sensitivity: the ratio between the change in the output signal to a
small change in input physical signal. Slope of the input-output fit
line.
Repeatability/Precision: the ability of the sensor to output the same
value for the same input over a number of trials

ACCURACY VS. RESOLUTION
True value
measurement

ACCURACY VS. PRECISION
Precision without Accuracy without Precision and

accuracy precision accuracy

( FLOW INSTRUMENTS ) ((
Flow Meters
Shortcut to The Differential Pressure Flow Measuring Principle (Orifice-Nozzle-Venturi).flv.lnk

Numerous types of flow meters are available for closed-piping systems. In
general, the equipment can be classified as
1)differential pressure. ( )
2)positive displacement. ( )
3)velocity, and mass meters. ( )
Positive displacement meters include piston, oval-gear, rotating-disk, and rotary-

vane types. Velocity meters consist of turbine, vortex shedding, electromagnetic,
and sonic designs. Mass meters include Coriolis and thermal types. The
measurement of liquid flows in open channels generally involves weirs

1. Positive Displacement Flow Meter (
Flow meters use two rotating impellers driven by the flowing liquid. This
activates a sensor which generates a pulsed output signal. Each pulse
represents a known volume of liquid that is captured in between the lobes of
the impellers. A K-factor converts the pulses into engineering units for remote
data collection and digital display.

2. Magnetic Flow Meter
Electromagnetic Flow .flv.lnk
The operating principle of magnetic flow meters is based upon Faraday's

Law of electromagnetic induction,
" It states that a voltage will be induced in a conductor moving through a
magnetic field."
Faraday's Law:
Where E= kBDV
E = Induced Voltage,
B = Strength of the magnetic field,
D = Conductor Width,
V = Velocity of the conductor

.The magnitude of the induced voltage E is directly proportional to the velocity
of the conductor V, conductor width D, and the strength of the magnetic field
B. Magnetic field coils placed on opposite sides of the pipe generate a
magnetic field. As the conductive process liquid moves through the field with
average velocity V, electrodes sense the induced voltage. The width of the
conductor is represented by the distance between electrodes. The only
variable in this application of Faraday's law is the velocity of the conductive
liquid V because field strength is controlled constant and electrode spacing is
fixed. Therefore, the output voltage E is directly proportional to liquid velocity,
resulting in the linear output of a magnetic resulting in the linear output of a
magnetic flow meter

3. Ultrasonic Flow Meter ((
Ultrasonic Flow Principle.flv.lnk

Ultrasonic Flow Meter. 3
Measures the velocity of particles moving with the flowing fluid. Signals of
known frequency are transmitted, reflected from particles, and are picked up
by a receiver. The received signals are analyzed for frequency shifts and the
resulting mean value of the frequency shifts can be directly related to the
mean velocity of the particles moving with the fluid.

Turbine Flow Meter. 4
Shortcut to Turbine Flow Meters vs . Oval Gear Flow Meters .flv.lnk
Fluid flowing through the meter impacts an angular velocity to the turbine
rotor blades, which is directly proportional to the linear velocity of the liquid.
The degree of the angular velocity or number of revolutions per minute of the
turbine rotor is determined by the angle of the rotor blades to the flowing
stream of the approach velocity.
5. Open Channel Flow Meter
Measurement of flow rates in open channels is difficult because of
nonuniform channel dimensions and variations in velocities across the
channel. Weirs allow water to be routed through a structure of known
dimensions, permitting flow rates to be measured as a function of depth of
flow through the structure. Thus, one of the simplest and most accurate
methods of measuring water flow in open channels is by the use of weirs.

Vortex Flow Meter. 6
Shortcut to The Vortex Flow Meas uring Principle.flv.lnk
The operation of a vortex meters that the medium flows against the trapezoidal
bluff body inside the vortex body and separates from the body surface
periodically forming vortices. The vortex shedding creates pressure differences
behind the bluff body which will act on the vortex detection area. A piezoelectric
sensor element inside the bluff body detects the force of the vortex shedding
and supplies a sinusoidal altering voltage with a frequency corresponding to the
vortex frequency thus being proportional to the flow velocity. The transmitter will
convert the sensor signal and finally supply an analog signal for further
processing.

Mass Flow Meter. 7
Shortcut to The Coriolis Flow Meas uring Principle.mvi.lnk
The heart of the device is a Coriolis sensor design, which measures low flow
independent of the fluid type or process variables.
The Carioles Effect is based on fundamental Newtonian physics (F = ma). You can
witness this in your own backyard. Take your garden hose and shape it into a U,
swing the U shape back and forth with no water running through it. Now while you
continue to swing the hose, have another individual turn on the water. You will
notice that the hose will twist; this twisting is the Carioles. Effect. The deflection of
the hose is directly proportional to the mass of the fluid flowing through it.
Types:
1. Carioles Mass Flow Meter for gas or liquid
2. Thermal Mass Flow for gas both can be digital or analog.

8. Pulse Flow Meter
The probe contains a horizontal wire-grid heating element and thermistors

(a transducer that coverts the temperature of the flow to electrical current)
located above and below it. Apertures in the tool permit the free flow of well
fluid through the assembly. Pulses of electric current are applied to the
heating grid under surface command, warming fluid in the vicinity of the
grid. The warm fluid front migrates towards the thermistors where it is
detected.

9. Mechanical Flow Meter
Flow Meter features a radial vaned impeller, mounted on a vertical spindle,

within a uniquely designed cylindrical measuring chamber. This
measuring chamber is sealed in position, within a vertically
compartmentalized meter housing.
The flowing water impacts on the impeller blades causing them to rotate.
This flow path causes the water level to rise within the radial chambers of
the rotating impeller and exit the measuring chamber through another
series of tangential orifices, located in the upper (discharge)
compartment of the external meter housing. Meanwhile, the rotating
impeller is magnetically coupled to the mechanical register, hermetically
isolated in a stainless steel seal cup, on top of the meter.

Piston Flow Meter. 10
A positive displacement meter that has a unique inline design consisting of
three reciprocating pistons operating within their respective measuring
chambers, where each piston works in a manner similar to an automobile
engine. The pistons are fitted to a wobble plate, which has a shaft extending
from its upper surface and a valve pivot attached beneath it. The valve pivot
drives a sliding valve from piston to piston as a known amount of product
flows through each cylindrical bore, controlling the sequence of events in a
smooth mechanical motion. This smooth mechanical motion is then
transferred through the calibrator to the register.

Flow Switches ((
Liquid switches are ideal for pump and process protection; gas switches for
filter and process protection. Switch state is selectable from normally open or
normally closed.
The instrument operates by measuring a temperature differential between a
heated and a reference temperature sensor (see figure ).
An extremely low power heating element is attached to a temperature sensor

and a second temperature sensor is isolated from the heater to provide
compensation for changing process temperature. The electronics measure
the differential and can be adjusted to switch at any flow listed in the flow
switch range chart.

Flow Indicator
Visual flow indicators with window
These are flow indicators for the visual control of liquids in

industrial process and for the external mechanical detection of
.very dirty liquids

Flow Transmitters
Shortcut to flow meter display.flv.lnk
.provide electrical output proportional to flow input : Flow transmitters

LEVEL METERS
Contact Meters Shortcut to level meas vibrator.flv.lnk
1. Float Level Meter
utilizes magnetic float to track the level of the liquid which activates an array reed
switches within the stainless steel probe
2.Switch Level Meter

When the magnetic field of permanent magnet inside the float is moved into to
the proximity of the reed switch inside, the reed switch "snaps" the contact
together and closes the electrical circuit. When the magnetic field is moved away
from the reed switch, the reed ((switch does not touch. The circuit is open.

Non Contact Meters
1. Gamma Meter
Used for toxic and highly aggressive media
Shortcut to Gamma Modulator.flv.lnk

Radar Level Meter. 2 Shortcut to Using Radar to measure the height in storage tanks.flv.lnk
Measuring the level of the liquid by sending and receiving radar signal and
calculate distance of height as S= V* t/2 (t :elapsed time for sending&
receive Radar signal.
Shortcut to Micropilot M.flv.lnk
3. Capacitance Level Meter

the electrode of the meter forms an electrical capacitor with the surrounding metal
container wall. With the vessel empty an initial capacitance exists between the
electrode and the metal wall. When the probe becomes covered with the liquid ,the
value of this capacitor increases and the capacitance change is measured and
converted to an output signal proportional to the capacitance change.
Shortcut to active build-up compensation - Capacitive probes2.flv.lnk

X-Ray Level Meter .4
Level Transmitter
Pressure-type level sensing transmitter
Shortcut to tank vision.flv.lnk
5. Level Indicator
A float containing a magnet rises and falls with the liquid. As the float
moves, this information is transferred to the indication rail mounted
on the outside of the tube. The white and red indication flaps
represent air and liquid level respectively.

WEIGHNG INSTRUMENTS
1) Load Cells
There are different types of Load cells used for different purposes:
a) low capacity load cells.
b) mid range load cells.
c) high range load cells.
2)Weighing Indicators
There are different types of indicators used for different purposes.

Weigh Feeders. 3
Although "weight-loss" weigh feeding is now a proven, highly accepted
concept - with the operating principle employed by the various weight-loss
feeder manufacturers similar in nature - distinct functional and physical
differences do exist differences that determine the true viability of the feeder
and the type of overall performance that a user can realistically expect.

PRESSURE INSTRUMENTS
1. Pressure Gauges Industrial ((
Shortcut to How Pressure Gauges are Made.flv.lnk

Safety pattern. 2
3. Differential pressure ( )
Shortcut to diff Pressure Gauges.ivr.lnk

S hortcut to Pres s ure s witch.flv.lnk
4. Pressure Switch
Pressure is sensed by a diaphragm that generates a force proportional to the
applied pressure this force is opposed by an adjustable spring which, at the
point of equilibrium permits movement of an operating rod which actuates a
switch or switches.
5.Transmitter
Liquid, gas, and vapor applications,
1.Indicator
Liquid, gas, and vapor applications.
Shortcut to Electronic production for level and pres s ure ins truments.flv.lnk

T TEMPERATURE INSTRUMENTS
1.Temperature Gauges
Many types for different usage .
General service gauges, Temperature industrial gauges for demanding
applications, food, heating/air conditioning and refrigeration industries,
measure the temperature of diesel exhaust, for use in the HVAC
industry for hot water lines, boilers heating, etc
1.Temperature Switches
Temperature switches incorporate two temperature-dependent

references and a comparator. One reference exhibits a positive
temperature coefficient and the other a negative temperature coefficient
(see Figure). The temperature at which the two reference voltages are
.equal determines the temperature trip point
Shortcut to important Principles of Instrumentation and Process Control - Sample.flv.lnk

Temperature Sensor: RTD
Resistance temperature device

(RTD)
R=100 ohm+0.4 ohm X degree
centigrade .
R R 0[1 (T - T0)]
1 1

T T0
R R0 e
S hortcut to Temperature meas urement in dialog.flv.lnk

Other Temperature Sensors
Thermistor Thermocouple: Seeback effect to
transform a temperature difference to a
Therm
1 2 3 istor
{ voltage difference
Thermal Resistor
Eg
R exp
2 kT
Capacitance TransducersI
Recall, capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is:
r 0 A
C
d
A: overlapping area of plates (m2)
d: distance between the two plates of the capacitor
(m) Air escape hole
0 : permittivity of air or free space 8.85pF/m
r : dielectric constant air
The following variations can be utilized to make capacitance-based sensors.

Change distance between the parallel electrodes.
Change the overlapping area of the parallel electrodes. Parallel plate capacitor Fuel tank
Change the dielectric constant.

Shortcut to Thermistor vs RTD vs Thermocouple.flv.lnk
Temperature Sensors
For various applications
For example:
a. Resistance Temperature Detector Thermometer
Required by the process industry. A Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) is
a temperature responsive device based on a predictable resistance change in
the sensing element.
100 OHM @ ZERO DEGREE
100+0.4 OHM/ CETEGRADE

Temperature Transmitters
It converts an RTD's (resistance temperature detector's) resistance
signal into a current proportional to the RTD's temperature.

Thermometers
1.Infrared Thermometers
How Thermocouple work How hot is a lighter flame .flv.lnk
The most basic design consists of a lens to focus the infrared (IR) energy on to
a detector, which converts the energy to an electrical signal that can be
displayed in units of temperature after being compensated for ambient
temperature variation. This configuration facilitates temperature measurement
from a distance without contact with the object to be measured.
Temperature-Measuring Pyrometer Fluke 62.flv.lnk

.Analog Thermometer : many types for different usage. 2
3. Digital Thermometers: many different types for example
For environmental testing
water resistance pocket thermometer

VIBRATION
Vibration Switches
:Applications
Fans, Cooling Towers Motors, Pumps Blowers, Compressors
Crushers, Shredders, Hammer Mills Rotating Machinery Monitoring.
Switch Output for PLC's
Shortcut to important Fluke 810 Vibration Meter.flv.lnk

Vibration Monitors
It provides vibration monitoring for rotational equipments
Applications:
Fans, Cooling Towers Motors, Pumps Blowers, Compressors

Vibrating Sensors
Critical to vibration monitoring and analysis is the machine mounted sensor.
Three parameters representing motion detected by vibration monitors are
displacement, velocity, and acceleration. These parameters are
mathematically related and can be derived from a variety of motion sensors.
Selection of a sensor proportional to displacement, velocity or acceleration
depends on the frequencies of interest and the signal levels involved.

Displacement Sensors are used to measure shaft motion and internal
clearances. Monitors have used non-contact proximity sensors such as eddy
probes to sense shaft vibration.
Velocity Sensors are used for low to medium frequency measurements. They
are useful for vibration monitoring and balancing operations on rotating
machinery. As compared to accelerometers, velocity sensors have lower
sensitivity to high frequency vibrations.
Accelerometers are the preferred motion sensors for most vibration monitoring
applications. They are useful for measuring low to very high frequencies and
are available in a wide variety of general purpose and application specific
designs. The piezoelectric accelerometer is unmatched for frequency and
amplitude range. The piezoelectric sensor is versatile, reliable and the most
popular vibration sensor for machinery monitoring.

SENSORS
Proximity Switches
Operation by the Eddy Current Killed Oscillator (ECKO) principle, which is used
to detect metallic objects passing in front of the sensing face. Once a target
metal is detected, a trigger signal is produced which is then passed through the
output conditioning circuitry to give a high or low output,

depending on the sensor application.
A comprehensive range of AC or DC inductive and capacitive proximity switches
are available in a variety of packages from short barrels, standard barrels, and
DIN standard limit switch styles. Housing materials include Nickel-plated brass,
Plastic and Stainless Steel which suit a wide range of installation environments.
The proximity switches offer a sensing range of 0 - 40 mm allowing a wide
variety of targets to be detected.
Typical applications:
1.speed switch .
2.limit switch .

Optical Sensors
In the following category, sensors are generally based either on measuring an
intensity change in one or more light beams or on looking at phase changes in
the light beams by causing them to interact or interfere with one another. Thus
sensors in this category are termed either intensity sensors or interferometric
sensors. Techniques used in the case of intensity sensors include light
scattering , spectral transmission changes (i.e., simple attenuation of
transmitted light due to absorption), microbending or radioactive losses,
reflectance changes, and changes in the modal properties of the fiber.

Optical Sensor Measurements

Sensors for Other Purposes
Photoelectric Sensors: Ideal for applications requiring a continuously variable
control voltage that is either directly or inversely related to photoelectric
sensing response.
Inductive Sensors: primarily used to detect metal parts and objects, these
sensors are used extensively in packaging and plastics machines.
Capacitive Sensors: detect most materials - conductive and non-conductive.
This makes them ideal for level detection in raw plastic delivery systems and
in agricultural applications.
Ultrasonic Sensors send out a sound wave which is reflected back by the
object being detected, typical applications are for level detection and
monitoring in tanks, parts detection, and diameter measuring in winding
machinery.

CALIBRATORS
Different types ,
For example:
1.Pressure Calibrators

1.Temperature Calibrators

1.Electrical Calibrators

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PID PI
PD
I PID . PD

I )Integrating
(Actuator . PD D .

PID PD
Tv
Tv PD Tn
.PI PD
) ( Ramp .

.

PID PD
Ramp Tv PD
.ComLab3
. I .

PID PI

Tv )
( To ) ( )y(t
To. :
Tv =1 sec

PID PI

PID
. )(
) e (t .
)( . D
) (.

I
PI P

PID
PI PI 1
Pure Dead Time
PID PID PI 2

Dead Time-lug 1st order
PID 3
2nd order system
PID PI 4


The Characteristics of P, I, and D controllers
RESPONSE RISE TIME OVERSHOOT SETTLING TIME ERROR
Kp Decrease Increase Small Change Decrease
Ki Decrease Increase Increase Eliminate
Small Small
Kd Decrease Decrease
Change Change

) (
)(

. .
Kp PI .

. Ki .
.

. .
.

.

) e(t ) ) sampled
A/D
Converter
.
D/A Converter
.

. Hardware Fuzzy
Controllers Adaptive Controllers .
.

PID
.
.
. Sampling (T) Time
. ) (T
.

Overshoot
x xo
. xm
.
) .( x m=10% .

Rise Time Ton
Settling Time Toff
Tan .Taus
) .(= dxo 10 %
x(t). Tan
Taus . ) x(t
.

PID

PID . P, PI,
. PID ) (
. .
.

PID

Kp, Tn, Tv :
) ( .
: ) ; )) Tg
(T u ) .(Kp

Kp .
10v+
10v- . .
.Kp

. PID :
:
,
.
, .
.

Loop tuning
.Process
) (
.

.
)
(Manual Mode Process
.

Ziegler-Nichols
Software tools
Cohen-Coon

Thank You
Info@jjeg.com
(Tel): + 962 6 5522807

(Fax): + 962 6 5532707

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Training Program in

KEEP OUR EFFORTS ROLLING

A sensor acquires a physical quantity and converts it into a signal

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Sensors Actuators e.g. Piezoelectric:

Microphone, Loud Speaker

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Faradays Law of Induction

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Sensors are pervasive. They are embedded in our bodies,

Without the use of sensors, there would be no automation !!

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Phase linearity: =kf

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Typical energy domains are mechanical, electrical, chemical, magnetic,

Transducer can be further divided into Sensors, which monitors a

Sensors are devices which monitor a parameter of a system, hopefully

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Precision without Accuracy without Precision and

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Shortcut to The Differential Pressure Flow Measuring Principle (Orifice-Nozzle-Venturi).flv.lnk

Positive displacement meters include piston, oval-gear, rotating-disk, and rotary-

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Electromagnetic Flow .flv.lnk

The operating principle of magnetic flow meters is based upon Faraday's

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Ultrasonic Flow Principle.flv.lnk

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Shortcut to Turbine Flow Meters vs . Oval Gear Flow Meters .flv.lnk

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Shortcut to The Vortex Flow Meas uring Principle.flv.lnk

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The probe contains a horizontal wire-grid heating element and thermistors

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Flow Meter features a radial vaned impeller, mounted on a vertical spindle,

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An extremely low power heating element is attached to a temperature sensor

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These are flow indicators for the visual control of liquids in

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Shortcut to flow meter display.flv.lnk

.provide electrical output proportional to flow input : Flow transmitters

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2.Switch Level Meter

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