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Research Methodology

By,
Kartikeya Singh
SMS Varanasi, UP
Syllabus
I. Concept of Research and Its Application in Various
Functions of Management
II. Types of Research
III. Types of Business Problems Encountered by the
Researcher
IV. Problems and Precautions to the Researchers.
V. Practical Case of Research
Book:
. Kothari C R Research Methodology Methods &
Techniques (New Age International Publishers)
. Saunders - Research Methods for Business students
(Prentice hall, 2nd Edition, 2007)
I. Concept of Research and Its
Application in Various Functions of
Management
Redman and Moory define research
as a Systematized effort to gain new
Knowledge.
Redman and Moory.
Research refers to a critical and
exhaustive investigation of
experimentation having as its aim
the revision of accepted conclusions
in the light of new discovered facts.
The encyclopedia of Social Sciences, Mac
Millan
Research
Research comprises defining and
redefining problems, formulating
hypothesis or suggested
solutions,collecting,organising and
evaluating data, making deductions
and reaching conclusion, and at last
carefully testing the conclusions to
determine whether they fit the
formulating hypothesis.
Clifford Woody
Objective of Research
To Explore
To Describe
To Diagnose
To Establish Causal
Relationship
Attributes of a Good
Research
Inquisitiveness
Innate Creativeness
Unbiaseness
Perseverance
Analytical Mind
Technology Savvy
Communicable
Expert in His Field
Example
I. Application in Various Functions of
Management
I. Planning
II. Organizing
III. Staffing
IV. Directing
V. Controlling
II. Types of Research
Pure and Basic Research

Applied Research

Qualitative Research

Quantitative Research

Empirical Research

Descriptive Research

Analytical Research

Conceptual Research

Historical Research

Exploratory Research
Types of Research
I. Pure or Basic Research
Research which is undertaken for enhancing the Pure and Basic
knowledge is known as basic or pure research. Research
It is basically undertaken with the intention of Applied Research
designing different tools for solving various
Qualitative
problem.
Research
It is concerned with a single situation and does not Quantitative
apply to wider area. Research
It is intellectual exploration and results into Empirical
development of theories and generalizations. Research
Descriptive
Pure research is largely limited to the academic
Research
world. Analytical
The funds provided by the educational institutions Research
and government enable researchers to pursue pure Conceptual
research. Research
Consumer behavior Historical
Human behavior Research
Natural phenomenon
Exploratory
Research
Pure mathematics
Types of Research
II.Applied Research
Also known as practical research and mainly Pure and Basic
Research
termed as Need based research which has
high practical relevance. Applied Research

The main aim of applied research is basicallyQualitative


Research
finding a solution for an immediate Quantitative
problem which is faced by a society or an Research
Empirical
industrial or business organization. Research
Time framed and budgeted research, Descriptive
marketing research and communication Research
Analytical
research are example of Applied research. Research
Problem Solving Research-Specific Problem. Conceptual
Research
Problem oriented Research-Applied nature Historical
of problem Research
Exploratory
Research
Types of Research.
III. Qualitative Research.
Qualitative in nature, generally Pure and Basic
Research
undertaken to study the human behavior.
Applied Research
Motivation Research
Qualitative
Word association test Research
Sentence Completion test Quantitative
Research
Story completion test Empirical
Similar other projective techniques Research
Descriptive
This type of research recommends the Research
guidance of experienced psychologists as Analytical
Research
it is difficult to study the complexities of Conceptual
human behavior with the single notion. Research
Historical
Research
Exploratory
Research
Types of Research
IV Quantitative Research.
Quantitative research is based on the Pure and Basic
Research
measurement of a phenomenon in
Applied Research
quantity terms. The results of such
research is subjected to intensive, Qualitative
Research
quantitative and statistical analysis. Quantitative
Quantitative research often looks towards Research
Empirical
quantitative data to support their theories Research
and quantitative research often looks for Descriptive
Research
support in existing theories. Analytical
Demographic profile of a given area Research
No. of automated vehicle used in particular Conceptual
Research
area Historical
Trends in terms of no's Research
Exploratory
Research
Types of Research
V. Empirical Research.
This is data based research in which Pure and Basic
Research
primary(first hand) data is collected Applied Research
and the data is analysed and subjected Qualitative
to hypothesis testing. Research
Quantitative
This is often referred to as Research
experimental research. Empirical
Research
This research relies on experience Descriptive
Research
or observation alone, often without Analytical
due regard for system and theory. Research
Conceptual
Data based research. Research
Historical
We may study the impact of a Research
depreciating dollar on Indian Export . Exploratory
Research
Types of Research
VI. Descriptive Research.
Descriptive research includes surveys Pure and Basic
Research
and fact-finding enquiries of different
Applied Research
kinds.
Qualitative
The major purpose of descriptive research Research
is description of the state of affairs as it Quantitative
Research
exists at present. Empirical
It includes Survey method. Research
Descriptive
The main characteristics of this Method is Research
that the researcher has no control over Analytical
Research
the variables. He can only report what Conceptual
has happened or what is happening. Research
Historical
Frequency of shopping. Research
Preferences of people. Exploratory
Research
Types of Research
VII. Analytical Research
Pure and Basic
In analytical research the Research
researcher use facts or Applied Research
information already available, Qualitative
Research
and analyze these to make a Quantitative
Research
critical evaluation of the material. Empirical
How International trade influences Research
Descriptive
the balance of payment of any Research
Analytical
country. Research
How and why this movement takes Conceptual
Research
place is an example of analytical Historical
research. Research
Exploratory
Research
Types of Research
VIII. Conceptual Research
Conceptual research is that related to Pure and Basic
Research
some abstract idea(s) or theory.
Applied Research
It is generally used by philosophers and
Qualitative
thinkers to develop new concepts or to Research
reinterpret existing ones. Quantitative
Research
The main aim of this type of research is to Empirical
study the problems and gaps in the Research
Descriptive
existing concepts or basic assumptions Research
and to correct and remove the Analytical
complexity of these concepts. Research
Conceptual
This type of research is time consuming Research
Historical
and is to be undertaken by experienced Research
researchers or experts in their own areas. Exploratory
Research
Types of Research
IX. Historical Research
Historical research is the process of Pure and Basic
Research
systematically examining past events
Applied Research
to give an account of what has happened
in the past. Qualitative
Research
It is not a mere accumulation of facts and Quantitative
dates or even a description of past events. Research
Empirical
It is flowing, dynamic account of past Research
events which involves and interpretation Descriptive
Research
of these events in an attempt to recapture Analytical
the nuances, personalities, and ideas that Research
Conceptual
influence these events. Research
Mystery over Mr. Subhash Chandra Bose Historical
Research
death Exploratory
Research
Types of Research
X. Exploratory Research
As the term suggests, exploratory research Pure and Basic
Research
is often conducted because a problem has
not been clearly defined as yet, or its Applied Research
real scope is yet unclear. Qualitative
Research
It allows the researcher to familiarize Quantitative
him/herself with the problem or concept Research
Empirical
to be studied, and perhaps generate Research
hypothesis (definition of hypothesis) to be Descriptive
tested. Research
Analytical
Exploratory research helps determine the Research
best research design, data collection Conceptual
Research
method and selection of subjects, and Historical
sometimes it even concludes that the Research
problem does not exist! Exploratory
Research
III. Types of Business Problems
Encountered by the Researcher
The lack of a scientific training in the methodology
Triple helix is not followed
Most of the business units in our country do not have the
confidence on research
Research studies are overlapping one another
There does not exist a code of conduct for researchers
The difficulty of adequate and timely secretarial
assistance, including computerial assistance
Library management and functioning is not satisfactory
There is also the difficulty of timely availability of
published data.
The problem of Conceptualization.
Facts
The expenditure on research and development
(R&D) in India remains at about 0.9 percent of
GDP compared with
1.12 percent in Russia,
1.25 percent in Brazil and
1.84 percent in China.
Japan spends about 3.67 percent of its GDP on
R&D.
USA spends more than 400 billion dollars on R&D
(2.77 percent of the GDP),
while India spends about 36 billion dollars
IV. Precautions to the
Researchers.
I. Clarifying Responsibilities.
II. Budgeting For Safety.
III. Planning For Safety In Research Design.
IV. Risk Assessment.
V. Preparing For Fieldwork.
VI. Setting Up Fieldwork
VII.Interview Precautions
VIII.Maintaining Contact
IX. Conduct Of Interviews
X. Strategies For Handling Risk Situations
XI. Safety Of Respondents /Maintaining Confidentiality
XII.Debriefing And Support After The Event
XIII.Making Guidelines Stick.
Assignment I
Date 02/02/2015
Submission Date 08/02/2015

I. What do you understand by the term


Research Methodology? How does it
contribute towards different
Management Functions?
II. What are different types of Research?
III. What the business problems faced by
any researcher?
IV. What precaution should a Researcher
take while doing Research?
Syllabus Unit II
I. Process of Research
II. Steps Involved in Research Process
III. Research Design
IV. Various Methods of Research Design
V. Collection of Data
VI. Case Study -
. Book:
Bhattacharyya-Research Methodology(Excel Books)
Panneer Selvam - Research Methodology (Prentice
Hall of India, Edition 2008)
1.Formulating the Research Problem
RESEAR
CH 2.Review of Literature
PROCES
S 3.Development of Working Hypothesis
4.Preparing Research Design
5.Determining Sample Design
6.Collection of Data
7. Execution of the Project
8.Analysis of Data
9.Hypothesis Testing
10. Generalization and Interpretation of
Data
11. Preparation of the Report
1.Research Problem
1.Formulating the Research
There are two types of research problems, viz., Problem

2.Review of Literature
those which relate to states of nature and
those which relate to relationships between 3.Development of Working
Hypothesis
variables.
4.Preparing Research Design
Initially the problem may be stated in a broad
general way and then the ambiguities, if any, 5.Determining Sample Design

relating to the problem be resolved. 6.Collection of Data

Then, the feasibility of a particular solution has 7. Execution of the Project


to be considered before a working formulation
8.Analysis of Data
of the problem can be set up.
The formulation of a general topic into a 9.Hypothesis Testing

specific research problem, thus, constitutes 10. Generalization and


Interpretation of Data
the first step in a scientific enquiry. 11. Preparation of the Report
1.Research Problem
1.Formulating the Research
Essentially two steps are involved in Problem

formulating the research problem, viz., 2.Review of Literature

understanding the problem thoroughly, 3.Development of Working


Hypothesis

and rephrasing the same into meaningful 4.Preparing Research Design


terms from an analytical point of view.
5.Determining Sample Design
The best way of understanding the problem is
to discuss it with ones own colleagues or 6.Collection of Data

with those having some expertise in the 7. Execution of the Project


matter
8.Analysis of Data
In an academic institution the researcher can
seek the help from a guide. 9.Hypothesis Testing

In private business units or in governmental 10. Generalization and


Interpretation of Data
organizations, the problem is usually 11. Preparation of the Report
earmarked by the administrative agencies
1.Research Problem
The researcher must at the same
time examine all available
literature to get himself
acquainted with the selected
problem.
He may review two types of
literature
the conceptual literature concerning the
concepts and theories,
and the empirical literature consisting of
studies made earlier which are similar to
the one proposed.
1.Research Problem
Professor W.A. Neiswanger
correctly states that the statement
of the objective is of basic
importance because
it determines the data which are to be
collected,
the characteristics of the data which
are relevant,
relations which are to be explored,
the choice of techniques to be used in
these explorations and the form of the
final report.
2.Extensive Literature Survey
Once the problem is formulated, a
brief summary of it should be
written down.
It is compulsory for a research
worker writing a thesis for a Ph.D.
degree to write a synopsis of the
topic and submit it to the necessary
Committee or the Research Board for
approval.
At this juncture the researcher
should undertake extensive
literature survey connected with
the problem. For this purpose, the
abstracting and indexing
2.Extensive Literature
Survey
Academic journals, conference
proceedings, government reports,
books etc., must be tapped
depending on the nature of the
problem.
In this process, it should be
remembered that one source will lead
to another.
The earlier studies, if any, which are
similar to the study in hand should be
carefully studied.
A good library will be a great help to
the researcher at this stage.
3. Development of working
hypothesis
Working hypothesis is
tentative assumption made
in order to draw out and test
its logical or empirical
consequences.
The role of the hypothesis is
to guide the researcher by
delimiting the area of
research and to keep him on
the right track.
3. Development of working
hypothesis
How does one go about developing working
hypotheses? The answer is by using the
following approach:
(a) Discussions with colleagues and experts
about the problem, its origin and the objectives in
seeking a solution;
(b) Examination of data and records, if
available, concerning the problem for possible
trends, peculiarities and other clues;
(c) Review of similar studies in the area or of the
studies on similar problems; and
(d) Exploratory personal investigation which
involves original field interviews on a limited scale
with interested parties and individuals with a view
to secure greater insight into the practical aspects
of the problem.
4. Preparing the research
design:
The research problem having been formulated
in clear cut terms, the researcher will be
required to prepare a research design, i.e.,
he will have to state the conceptual structure
within which research would be conducted.
The function of research design is to provide for
the collection of relevant evidence with minimal
expenditure of effort, time and money. But
how all these can be achieved depends mainly
on the research purpose. Research purposes
may be grouped into four categories, viz.,
Exploration,
Description,
Diagnosis, and
Experimentation.
4. Preparing the
research design
The preparation of the research design,
appropriate for a particular research
problem, involves usually the consideration
of the following:
the means of obtaining the information;
the availability and skills of the researcher
and his staff (if any);
explanation of the way in which selected
means of obtaining information will be
organized and the reasoning leading to the
selection;
the time available for research; and
the cost factor relating to research, i.e., the
finance available for the purpose.
5. Determining sample
design:
Deliberate
Simple Random
Systematic
Stratified
Quota Sampling
Cluster Sampling and area Sampling
Multi Stage sampling
Sequential Sampling
Probability and Non Probability
Sampling
All the items under consideration
in any field of inquiry constitute a
universe or population.
A sample design is a definite plan
determined before any data are
actually collected for obtaining a
sample from a given population
With probability samples each
element has a known probability
of being included in the sample
but the non-probability samples
do not allow the researcher to
determine this probability.
Simple Random
This type of sampling is also known as
chance sampling or probability
sampling where each and every item
in the population has an equal
chance of inclusion in the sample
and each one of the possible samples,
in case of finite universe, has the same
probability of being selected.
For example,
if we have to select a sample of 300
items from a universe of 15,000 items,
then we can put the names or numbers of
all the 15,000 items on slips of paper and
conduct a lottery. Using the random
number tables is another method of
random sampling.
Systematic Sampling
In some instances the most
practical way of sampling is to
select every 15th name on a
list, every 10th house on one
side of a street and so on.
Sampling of this type is known
as systematic sampling. An
element of randomness is
usually introduced into this
kind of sampling by using
random numbers to pick up
the unit with which to start.
Stratified Sampling
If the population from which a sample is
to be drawn does not constitute a
homogeneous group, then stratified
sampling technique is applied so as to
obtain a representative sample. In this
technique, the population is
stratified into a number of non
overlapping subpopulations or
strata and sample items are selected
from each stratum. If the items selected
from each stratum is based on simple
random sampling the entire procedure,
first stratification and then simple
random sampling, is known as
stratified random sampling.
Cluster Sampling
Cluster sampling involves grouping the
population and then selecting the groups or the
clusters rather than individual elements for
inclusion in the sample. Suppose some
departmental store wishes to sample its credit
card holders. It has issued its cards to 15,000
customers. The sample size is to be kept say 450.
For cluster sampling this list of 15,000 card
holders could be formed into 100 clusters of 150
card holders each. Three clusters might then be
selected for the sample randomly. The sample
size must often be larger than the simple random
sample to ensure the same level of accuracy
because is cluster sampling procedural potential
for order bias and other sources of error is usually
accentuated. The clustering approach can,
however, make the sampling procedure relatively
easier and increase the efficiency of field work,
specially in the case of personal interviews.
Multistage Sampling
This is a further development of the
idea of cluster sampling. This
technique is meant for big inquiries
extending to a considerably large
geographical area like an entire
country. Under multi-stage
sampling the first stage may be to
select large primary sampling units
such as states, then districts,
then towns and finally certain
families within towns. If the
technique of random-sampling is
applied at all stages, the sampling
procedure is described as multi-
stage random sampling.
Convenience Sampling
Deliberate sampling is also known as
purposive or non-probability sampling.
This sampling method involves purposive or
deliberate selection of particular units of the
universe for constituting a sample which
represents the universe. When population
elements are selected for inclusion in the
sample based on the ease of access, it can be
called convenience sampling. If a researcher
wishes to secure data from, say, gasoline
buyers, he may select a fixed number of petrol
stations and may conduct interviews at these
stations. This would be an example of
convenience sample of gasoline buyers. At
times such a procedure may give very biased
results particularly when the population is not
homogeneous.
Quota sampling
In stratified sampling the cost of taking
random samples from individual strata is
often so expensive that interviewers are
simply given quota to be filled from
different strata, the actual selection of
items for sample being left to the
interviewers judgment. This is called
quota sampling. The size of the quota
for each stratum is generally
proportionate to the size of that stratum
in the population. Quota sampling is thus
an important form of non-probability
sampling. Quota samples generally
happen to be judgment samples rather
than random samples.
Judgemental Sampling
In judgement sampling the
researchers judgement is used for
selecting items which he considers
as representative of the
population.
For example,
a judgement sample of college
students might be taken to secure
reactions to a new method of
teaching. Judgement sampling is
used quite frequently in qualitative
research where the desire happens to
be to develop hypotheses rather than
to generalize to larger populations.
6.Collecting Data
I. By observation
II. Through personal interview
III. Through telephonic interviews
IV. By mailing of questionnaires
V. Through schedules
7. Execution of the
project
Execution of the project is a very important step in the
research process. If the execution of the project proceeds
on correct lines, the data to be collected would be
adequate and dependable.
In such a situation, questions as well as the possible
answers may be coded.
If the data are to be collected through interviewers,
arrangements should be made for proper selection and
training of the interviewers.
Occasional field checks should be made to ensure that
the interviewers are doing their assigned job sincerely
and efficiently.
A careful watch should be kept for unanticipated factors
in order to keep the survey as much realistic as possible.
If some of the respondents do not cooperate, some
suitable methods should be designed to tackle this
problem.
8. Analysis of data:
The analysis of data
requires a number of
closely related operations
such as establishment of
categories, the application
of these categories to raw
data through coding,
tabulation and then
drawing statistical
inferences.
9. Hypothesis-testing:
After analyzing the data as stated above, the
researcher is in a position to test the hypotheses, if
any, he had formulated earlier.
Do the facts support the hypotheses or they happen
to be contrary? This is the usual question which
should be answered while testing hypotheses.
Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test,
have been developed by statisticians for the purpose.
The hypotheses may be tested through the use of one
or more of such tests, depending upon the nature and
object of research inquiry. Hypothesis-testing will
result in either accepting the hypothesis or in
rejecting it.
If the researcher had no hypotheses to start with,
generalizations established on the basis of data may
be stated as hypotheses to be tested by subsequent
researches in times to come.
10.Generalisations and
interpretation:
If a hypothesis is tested and upheld
several times, it may be possible for the
researcher to arrive at generalization, i.e.,
to build a theory. As a matter of fact, the
real value of research lies in its ability to
arrive at certain generalizations. If the
researcher had no hypothesis to start
with, he might seek to explain his findings
on the basis of some theory. It is known
as interpretation. The process of
interpretation may quite often trigger off
new questions which in turn may lead to
further researches.
11.Preparation of the report or
the thesis:
The layout of the report should be as follows:
I. The preliminary pages;
I. Title and date
II. acknowledgements
III. Foreword
IV. table of contents
V. list of tables
VI. List of graphs and charts
II. The main text,
I. Introduction
II. Summary of findings
III. Main report
IV. Conclusion
III. and the end matter.
I. Appendices
II. Bibliography
III. Index
III. Research Design
A research design is the
arrangement of conditions for
collection and analysis of data
in a manner that aims to combine
relevance to the research purpose with
economy in procedure
III. Research Design
I. What is the study about?
II. Why is the study being made?
III.Where will the study be carried out?
IV.What type of data is required?
V. Where can the required data be found?
VI.What periods of time will the study include?
VII.What will be the sample design?
VIII.
What techniques of data collection will be
used?
IX.How will the data be analyzed?
X. In what style will the report be prepared?
III. Research Design
By keeping previous mentioned
objective we may divide the design
into following parts.
I. the sampling design
II. the observational design
III. the statistical design
IV. the operational design
III. Research Design
In brief, research design must, at
least, contain
a clear statement of the research
problem;
procedures and techniques to be
used for gathering information;
the population to be studied; and
methods to be used in processing
and analysing data.
IV- Various Methods of Research
Design
I. research design in case of exploratory
research studies;
II. research design in case of descriptive
and diagnostic research studies, and
III. research design in case of hypothesis-
testing research studies.
IV- Various Methods of Research
Design
I. Research design in case of
exploratory research studies
The main purpose of such studies is that of
formulating a problem for more precise
investigation or of developing the working
hypotheses from an operational point of view.
the survey of concerning literature;
the experience survey and
the analysis of insight-stimulating
examples
IV- Various Methods of Research
Design
Research design in case of descriptive and
diagnostic research studies

Descriptive research studies are those


studies which are concerned with
describing the characteristics of a
particular individual, or of a group,
whereas diagnostic research studies
determine the frequency with which
something occurs or its association with
something else
IV - Various Methods of
Research Design
Research design in case of descriptive and
diagnostic research studies
The design in such studies must be rigid and not flexible and
must focus attention on the following:
Formulating the objective of the study (what the study
is about and why is it being made?)
Designing the methods of data collection (what
techniques of gathering data will be adopted?)
Selecting the sample (how much material will be needed?)
Collecting the data (where can the required data be found
and with what time period should the data be related?)
Processing and analysing the data.(without any
biasness)
Reporting the findings.
IV- Various Methods of Research
Design
Type of Study
Research Design Exploratory/Formulati Descriptive/Diagnosti
ve c
Overall Design Flexible design(design Rigid design(design
must provide must make enough
opportunity for provision for protection
considering different against bias and must
aspects of the problem maximize reliability
I. Sampling Design Non- Probability sampling
probability(purposive or design(random
judgemental sampling)
II. Statistical design No pre-planned design Pre-planned design for
for analysis analysis
III. Observational design Unstructured Structured or well
instruments for thought out
collection of data instruments for
collection of data
IV. Operational design No fixed decisions about Advanced decisions
IV- Various Methods of
Research Design
Research design in case of
hypothesis-testing research studies
Hypothesis-testing research studies (generally
known as experimental studies) are those
where the researcher tests the hypotheses of
causal relationships between variables
Professor R.A. Fishers name is associated
with experimental designs. Beginning of such
designs was made by him when he was
working at Rothamsted Experimental Station
(Centre for Agricultural Research in England).
V. Collection of Data
V. Collection of Data
Method of Primary Data Collection
Observation method,
Interview method,
Through questionnaires,
Through schedules,
other methods
Warranty cards
Distributor audits;
Pantry audits;
Consumer panels;
Using mechanical devices;
Through projective
techniques;
Depth interviews, and
Content analysis.
V. Collection of Data
I. Primary Data Collection
a)Observation Method
Advantage Disadvantage
The main advantage of this Firstly, it is an expensive
method is that subjective bias is method.
eliminated, if observation is done
accurately. Secondly, the information
Secondly, the information provided by this method is
obtained under this method very limited.
relates to what is currently Thirdly, sometimes unforeseen
happening; factors may interfere with the
Thirdly, this method is observational task. At times,
independent of respondents the fact that some people are
willingness to respond rarely accessible to direct
This method is particularly observation creates obstacle
suitable where no possibility of for this method to collect data
giving verbal reports of their effectively.
feelings for one reason or the
other
V. Collection of Data
I. Primary Data Collection
a)Observation Method
structured observation //unstructured
observation
participant observation//non-
participant observation//disguised
observation
Controlled//uncontrolled observation
V. Collection of Data
I. Primary Data Collection b) Interview
Method
Advantage Disadvantage
Expensive method
More information There remains the possibility of
Interviewer by his own skill can the bias of interviewer as well as
overcome the resistance, that of the respondent;
There is greater flexibility Accessibility of Reaspondent.
Observation method can as well be more-time-consuming,
applied to recording verbal answers to
The presence of the interviewer
various questions.
Personal information can as well be
on the spot may over-stimulate
obtained easily under this method. the respondent,
Samples can be controlled more Under the interview method the
effectively organisation required for
The interviewer can usually control selecting, training and supervising
respondents the field-staff is more complex
Language with formidable problems.
Supplementary Information Interviewing at times may also
Spontaneous Reaction introduce systematic errors.
Effective interview not possible
freely
V. Collection of Data
I. Primary Data Collection b) Interview
Method
Personal interviews
structured //Unstructured
Focussed interview//non-directive
interview
Clinical interview
Telephonic interviews
V. Collection of Data
I. Primary Data Collection C) Questionnaires

Advantage Disadvantage
There is low cost even when the Low rate of return of the duly filled in
universe is large and is widely questionnaires; bias due to no-
spread geographically response is often indeterminate.
It can be used only when
It is free from the bias of the
respondents are educated and
interviewer; answers are in
cooperating.
respondents own words.
The control over questionnaire may
Respondents have adequate time be lost once it is sent.
to give well thought out answers. There is inbuilt inflexibility
Respondents, who are not easily There is also the possibility of
approachable, can also be reached ambiguous replies or omission
conveniently. It is difficult to know whether willing
Large samples can be made use of respondents are truly representative.
and thus the results can be made This method is likely to be the
more dependable and reliable. slowest of all
V. Collection of Data
I. Primary Data Collection d)
Schedules
This method of data collection is very much like the
collection of data through questionnaire, with little difference
which lies in the fact that schedules (proforma containing
a set of questions) are being filled in by the enumerators
who are specially appointed for the purpose.
These enumerators along with schedules, go to respondents,
put to them the questions from the proforma in the order the
questions are listed and record the replies in the space
meant for the same in the proforma.
In certain situations, schedules may be handed over to
respondents and enumerators may help them in recording
their answers to various questions in the said schedules.
V. Collection of Data
I. Primary Data Collection Some Other Methods Of
Data Collection

Warranty cards Pictorial Techniques


Distributor or store Thematic apperception test
(T.A.T.)
audits
Rosenzweig test
Pantry audits Rorschach test
Consumer panels Holtzman Inkblot Test (HIT)
Use of mechanical Tomkins-Horn picture
arrangement test
devices
Play techniques
Projective techniques

Quizzes, tests and
Word association tests

examinations
Sentence completion tests
Story completion tests Sociometry
Verbal projection tests Depth interviews
Pictorial techniques Content-analysis
Assignment II
Opening Date 12/03/2015
Submission Date 23/03/2015

I. Elaborate the Research Process in


detail
II. What is research and discuss
different research design methods.
Syllabus Unit III
I. Concept of Sample
II. Sample Size and Sampling Procedure
III.Various Types of Sampling Techniques
IV.Determination and Selection of Sample Member
V. Types of Data: Secondary and Primary
VI.Various Methods of Collection and Data
VII.Preparation of Questionnaire and Schedule
VIII.
Types of Questions
IX.Sequencing of Questions,
X. Check Questions Length of Questionnaire
XI.Precautions in Preparation of Questionnaire and
Collection of Data
XII.Case Study
I. Concept of Sample

Census And Sample Survey


All items in any field of inquiry constitute a
Universe or Population.
A complete enumeration of all items in the
population is known as a census inquiry.
The respondents selected should be as
representative of the total population as possible in
order to produce a miniature cross-section. The
selected respondents constitute what is technically
called a sample and the selection process is called
sampling technique.
The survey so conducted is known as sample
survey.
II. Sample Size and Sampling
Procedure
Steps In Sample Design
II. Sample Size and Sampling Procedure

Criteria Of Selecting A Sampling


Procedure
Two costs are involved in a sampling analysis viz., the
cost of collecting the data and the cost of an incorrect
inference resulting from the data. Researcher must
keep in view the two causes of incorrect inferences
viz., systematic bias and sampling error
Inappropriate sampling frame
Defective measuring device
Non-respondents
Indeterminacy principle
Natural bias in the reporting of data

Sampling Error
Characteristics Of A Good
Sample Design
Sample design must result in a truly
representative sample.
Sample design must be such which results in a
small sampling error.
Sample design must be viable in the context of
funds available for the research study.
Sample design must be such so that systematic
bias can be controlled in a better way.
Sample should be such that the results of the
sample study can be applied, in general, for the
universe with a reasonable level of confidence.
III. Various Types of Sampling
Techniques
Probability and Non Probability
Sampling
All the items under consideration
in any field of inquiry constitute a
universe or population.
A sample design is a definite plan
determined before any data are
actually collected for obtaining a
sample from a given population
With probability samples each
element has a known probability
of being included in the sample
but the non-probability samples
do not allow the researcher to
determine this probability.
Simple Random
This type of sampling is also known as
chance sampling or probability
sampling where each and every item
in the population has an equal
chance of inclusion in the sample
and each one of the possible samples,
in case of finite universe, has the same
probability of being selected.
For example,
if we have to select a sample of 300
items from a universe of 15,000 items,
then we can put the names or numbers of
all the 15,000 items on slips of paper and
conduct a lottery. Using the random
number tables is another method of
random sampling.
Systematic Sampling
In some instances the most
practical way of sampling is to
select every 15th name on a
list, every 10th house on one
side of a street and so on.
Sampling of this type is known
as systematic sampling. An
element of randomness is
usually introduced into this
kind of sampling by using
random numbers to pick up
the unit with which to start.
Stratified Sampling
If the population from which a sample is
to be drawn does not constitute a
homogeneous group, then stratified
sampling technique is applied so as to
obtain a representative sample. In this
technique, the population is
stratified into a number of non
overlapping subpopulations or
strata and sample items are selected
from each stratum. If the items selected
from each stratum is based on simple
random sampling the entire procedure,
first stratification and then simple
random sampling, is known as
stratified random sampling.
Cluster Sampling
Cluster sampling involves grouping the
population and then selecting the groups or the
clusters rather than individual elements for
inclusion in the sample. Suppose some
departmental store wishes to sample its credit
card holders. It has issued its cards to 15,000
customers. The sample size is to be kept say 450.
For cluster sampling this list of 15,000 card
holders could be formed into 100 clusters of 150
card holders each. Three clusters might then be
selected for the sample randomly. The sample
size must often be larger than the simple random
sample to ensure the same level of accuracy
because is cluster sampling procedural potential
for order bias and other sources of error is usually
accentuated. The clustering approach can,
however, make the sampling procedure relatively
easier and increase the efficiency of field work,
specially in the case of personal interviews.
Multistage Sampling
This is a further development of the
idea of cluster sampling. This
technique is meant for big inquiries
extending to a considerably large
geographical area like an entire
country. Under multi-stage
sampling the first stage may be to
select large primary sampling units
such as states, then districts,
then towns and finally certain
families within towns. If the
technique of random-sampling is
applied at all stages, the sampling
procedure is described as multi-
stage random sampling.
Convenience Sampling
Deliberate sampling is also known as
purposive or non-probability sampling.
This sampling method involves purposive or
deliberate selection of particular units of the
universe for constituting a sample which
represents the universe. When population
elements are selected for inclusion in the
sample based on the ease of access, it can be
called convenience sampling. If a researcher
wishes to secure data from, say, gasoline
buyers, he may select a fixed number of petrol
stations and may conduct interviews at these
stations. This would be an example of
convenience sample of gasoline buyers. At
times such a procedure may give very biased
results particularly when the population is not
homogeneous.
Quota sampling
In stratified sampling the cost of taking
random samples from individual strata is
often so expensive that interviewers are
simply given quota to be filled from
different strata, the actual selection of
items for sample being left to the
interviewers judgment. This is called
quota sampling. The size of the quota
for each stratum is generally
proportionate to the size of that stratum
in the population. Quota sampling is thus
an important form of non-probability
sampling. Quota samples generally
happen to be judgment samples rather
than random samples.
Judgemental Sampling
In judgement sampling the
researchers judgement is used for
selecting items which he considers
as representative of the
population.
For example,
a judgement sample of college
students might be taken to secure
reactions to a new method of
teaching. Judgement sampling is
used quite frequently in qualitative
research where the desire happens to
be to develop hypotheses rather than
to generalize to larger populations.
V. Types of Data//Collection of
Data
V. Collection of Data
Method of Primary Data Collection
Observation method,
Interview method,
Through questionnaires,
Through schedules,
other methods
Warranty cards
Distributor audits;
Pantry audits;
Consumer panels;
Using mechanical devices;
Through projective
techniques;
Depth interviews, and
Content analysis.
V. Collection of Data
I. Primary Data Collection
a)Observation Method
Advantage Disadvantage

Remove Subjective
Firstly, it is an
Bias
expensive method.
Covers current
Limited Information
happening;
provided
Independent of
Unforeseen Event may
respondent Interest
hamper the
Suitable where verbal observation.
response is not
possible.
V. Collection of Data
I. Primary Data Collection
a)Observation Method
I. Structured observation
//Unstructured
observation
II. Participant
observation//non-
participant
observation//Disguised
observation
III. Controlled//Uncontrolled
observation
V. Collection of Data
I. Primary Data Collection b) Interview
Method
Advantage Disadvantage
More information
Expensive method
Overcome the resistance, Interviewers bias
Greater flexibility Accessibility of
Observation and Interview both Respondent.
are possible. Time-consuming,
Personal information can be
Over Stimulation of
obtained.

respondent,
Samples can be controlled more
effectively. Selecting and Training staff
Can control response is a formidable.
Language. Introduce systematic
Supplementary Information. errors.
Spontaneous Reaction. Effective interview not
possible freely
V. Collection of Data
I. Primary Data Collection b) Interview
Method
Personal
interviews
structured
//Unstructured
Focussed
interview//non-
directive interview
Clinical interview
Telephonic
interviews
V. Collection of Data
I. Primary Data Collection C) Questionnaires

Advantage Disadvantage
There is low cost even Low rate of return
when the universe is Bias due to non-response
large Can only be used when
It is free from the bias of respondents are
the interviewer; knowledgeable.
Respondents have Questionnaire control.
adequate time. Inbuilt inflexibility
Respondents Ambiguous replies or
accessibility Omission
Large samples gives Representation of the
more reliability interested respondents
Slowest of all
V. Collection of Data
I. Primary Data Collection d)
Schedules
This method of data collection is very
much like the collection of data
through questionnaire, with little
difference which lies in the fact that
schedules (proforma containing a
set of questions) are being filled in
by the enumerators who are specially
appointed for the purpose. .
VI. Collection of Data
I. Primary Data Collection Some Other Methods Of
Data Collection

I. Warranty cards VI. Pictorial Techniques


Warranty Card.jpg I. Thematic apperception test
(T.A.T.)
II. Distributor or store audits Thematic Appreciation Test.pptx
III. Pantry audits II. Rosenzweig test Rosenweig
Test.jpg
IV. Consumer panels
III. Rorschach test Rorschach1.jpg
V. Use of mechanical devices IV. Holtzman Inkblot Test (HIT)
VI.Projective techniques Holtzman Inkblot Test.jpg
I. Word association tests V. Tomkins-Horn picture
arrangement test
WAT Test with Examples.pdf
II. Sentence completion tests
VII. Play techniques
Sentence Completion Test.pdf VIII.Quizzes, tests and
III. Story completion tests examinations
Story completion test.jpg IX. Sociometry
IV. Verbal projection tests VII.Depth interviews
V. Pictorial techniques
VIII.
Content-analysis
VII. Preparation of Questionnaire and
Schedule
Main aspects of a questionnaire
General form
Structured
Closed ended
Opened ended
Unstructured
Question Sequence: The following type of questions should
generally be avoided as opening questions in a questionnaire:
questions that put too great a strain on the memory or intellect of the
respondent;
questions of a personal character;
questions related to personal wealth, etc.
Question formulation and wording:
Should be easily understood;
Should be simple i.e., should convey only one thought at a time;
Should be concrete and should conform as much as possible to the respondents
way of thinking.
VIII Types of Questions
Types of Questions
Open Ended
Closed Ended
Leading Questions
Importance Questions
Likert Questions
Dichotomous Questions
Bipolar Questions
Rating Scale Questions
Buying Propensity Questions
VI. Preparation of Questionnaire
and Schedule
Ten Steps to Design a Questionnaire
XI. Precautions in Preparation of
Questionnaire and Collection of Data
The researcher must pay attention to the following points in constructing
an appropriate and effective questionnaire or a schedule:
The researcher must keep in view the problem he is to study for it
provides the starting point for developing the Questionnaire/Schedule.
Appropriate form of questions depends on the nature of information
sought, the sampled respondents and the kind of analysis intended.
Rough draft of the Questionnaire/Schedule be prepared, giving
due thought to the appropriate sequence of putting questions.
Researcher must invariably re-examine, and in case of need may
revise the rough draft for a better one.
Pilot study should be undertaken for pre-testing the questionnaire.
Questionnaire must contain simple but straight forward directions
Assignment
Date of Opening 22/03/2015
Date of Submission 03/04/2015

What is sampling? Describe sampling


process in detail.
What are different types of Sampling
Techniques?
Discuss the process of Questionnaire
Designing?
What are the precautions which one
should take while designing a
questionnaire?
Syllabus Unit V
I. Report Preparation
II. Types and Layout of
Research Report
III. Precautions in Preparing
the Research Report
IV. Bibliography and
Annexure in the Report :
Their Significance
V. Drawing Conclusions,
Suggestions and
Recommendations to
the Concerned Persons.
I. Report Preparation
Research report is considered a
major component of the research
study for the research task remains
incomplete till the report has been
presented and/or written.
A research report can be based on
practical work, research by reading
or a study of an organization or
industrial/workplace situation.
I. Report Preparation
1. Value for the 4. It should be published so
Investment. that the actual author may
get actual credit.
2. It should be shared so 5. We must publish as
that knowledge base can researchers professional
be increased for the value can only be evaluated
overall development. in terms of their output
6. Knowledge is the only
3. Human knowledge commodity in the world that
belongs to all humanity, actually increases in value
it must be shared and and extent only when
made available publicly. shared. The researchers
duty is to increase
4. Accuracy should be knowledge.
checked
I. Report Preparation
II. Report Layout
(A)Preliminary Pages
I. title and date
II. acknowledgements in the form of Preface or Foreword
III. tables and illustrations
(B)Main Text
I. Introduction;
II. Statement of findings and recommendations;
III. The results;
IV. The implications drawn from the results; and
V. The summary.
(C)End Matter
I. Appendices(all technical data such as questionnaires, sample
information, mathematical derivations and the like ones.
II. Bibliography
III. Index
II Types of Reports
Results of a research investigation
can be presented in a number of
ways viz.,
a) a technical report,
b) a popular report,
c) an article,
d) a monograph or at times even in the
form of oral presentation
II Types of Reports
a) technical report
A technical report is used whenever a
full written report of the study is
required whether for recordkeeping or
for public dissemination.
(i) the methods employed,
(ii) assumptions made in the course of the
study,
(iii) the detailed presentation of the findings
including their limitations and supporting
data
II Types of Reports
a) Technical report
II Types of Reports
b) Popular Report
A popular report is used if the research results have policy
implications.
The popular report is one which gives emphasis on
simplicity and attractiveness.
The simplification should be sought through clear writing,
minimization of technical, particularly mathematical,
details and liberal use of charts and diagrams.
Attractive layout along with large print, many
subheadings, even an occasional cartoon now and then
is another characteristic feature of the popular report.
Besides, in such a report emphasis is given on practical
aspects and policy implications
II Types of Reports
b) Popular Report
II. Types of Reports.
c) Oral Presentation
Oral presentation of the results of the
study is considered effective, particularly
in cases where policy recommendations
are indicated by project results. The
merit of this approach lies in the fact
that it provides an opportunity for give-
and-take decisions which generally lead
to a better understanding of the findings
and their implications.
Types of research articles:
1. A journal article
2. A conference paper
3. An article in a trade or scholarly
periodical
4. A thesis
5. A research report
6. A research monograph
Journal papers:
Each discipline has a number of journals where the findings
in the discipline are published. These come in two general
categories:
1. Peer reviewed
a) Archival journals
b) Non-archival journals
2. Non- peer-reviewed
A peer-reviewed journal is one in which the articles submitted
for publication are sent to a panel of expert peers in the
discipline to read and evaluate the suitability of publication of
the material presented. Only peer-reviewed publications are
of significance as scientific research publication. We shall not
discuss non-reviewed publications.
Conferences and conference
papers:
Almost every discipline also has a
number of conferences associated
with work in it. Conferences may be:
1. Commercially or trade oriented
2. Professionally/scholarly oriented, or
3. Research oriented.
Articles in trade or scholarly
periodicals:
This means that they are a venue for the publication of
material that might be of value to the profession or the
research community which may not be publishable in
an archival or research journal.
1. Material that is not original research but is an application of
some current or established research which highlights a new
issue or opens a question etc.
2. Material that proposes a research project of interest or a
collaboration for a project.
3. A case study or an experience report
4. A revalidation of previous research
5. Scholarly (non-research) work of an eminent authority
6. Advice, methodologies, and advocations of eminent authorities.
Theses:
In recent years the meaning of the
word has somewhat changed and the
role a thesis played previously is now
played by another artifact called a
research monogram.
A thesis today is a major written work
reporting on an identifiable piece of
research conducted by a candidate
for a higher degree.
Format of theses
Research Report:
A research report is also a report written usually
without a page number limitation or many other
restrictions for the purpose of documenting and
publishing research work where details of the work that
are not otherwise available in the journal paper are
required.
A research report is usually shorter than a thesis but
longer than a typical archival paper (approximately 20-
100 pages) and contains the details of the
methodology, information on equipment, data collected
in raw or semi-processed form, and any other piece of
information needed to adequately understand or to
reproduce the work.
A Research Monogram:
A research monogram is a book
written by the researcher and
published by a publisher for the
purpose of general sale. It is usually
free from most stylistic and logistics
limitations otherwise imposed on
publications destined for journals or
conferences.
Evaluating a research article:
A research article is usually evaluated by
a panel of experts before it is accepted for
publication. This process is called The
Peer Review Process.
1. Technical robustness
2. Clarity
3. Style/language/presentation
4. Interest and relevance
5. Appropriateness for venue
Evaluating a research
article:
These ratings are usually:
1. Accept without any modifications
2. Accept with minor stylistic modifications to
the satisfaction of the editor
3. Accept with minor structural or technical
modifications as advised
4. Accept after modifications sought have
been reviewed
5. Reject out-right
III. Precautions For Writing
Research Reports
Research report is a channel of
communicating the research findings
to the readers of the report.
It should be long enough to cover the
subject but short enough to
maintain interest.
A research report should not be
dull.
Abstract terminology and technical
jargon should be avoided in a
III. Precautions For Writing
Research Reports
The layout of the report should match with the
objective of he research.
strictly in accordance with the techniques of
composition of report-writing
The report must present the logical analysis of the
subject matter
A research report should show originality.
State the policy implications relating to the problem
under consideration
Appendices should be enlisted in respect of all the
technical data in the report.
Bibliography of sources consulted is a must for a good
report and must necessarily be given.
III. Precautions For Writing
Research Reports
Index is also considered an essential part of a good
report and as such must be prepared and appended
at the end.
Report must be attractive in appearance, neat and
clean, whether typed or printed.
Have to mention Various constraints experienced
in conducting the research study may also be stated
in the report.
Objective of the study, the nature of the problem,
the methods employed and the analysis
techniques adopted must all be clearly stated in the
beginning of the report in the form of introduction.
IV .Bibliography and Annexure in the
Report : Their Significance

Bibliography:
For books and pamphlets the order may be as under:
1. Name of author, last name first.
2. Title, underlined to indicate italics.
3. Place, publisher, and date of publication.
4. Number of volumes.
Example
Kothari, C.R., Quantitative Techniques, New Delhi, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.,
1978.
For magazines and newspapers the order may be as under:
1. Name of the author, last name first.
2. Title of article, in quotation marks.
3. Name of periodical, underlined to indicate italics.
4. The volume or volume and number.
5. The date of the issue.
6. The pagination.
Example
Robert V. Roosa, Coping with Short-term International Money Flows, The Banker,
London, September, 1971, p. 995.
IV .Bibliography and Annexure in the
Report : Their Significance
Why Is A Bibliography So Important?
It shows the lecturer/tutor/examiner what you have
been reading and also where you have been reading
around the subject.
It demonstrates that the points you are making in your
work are supported by other people. Your arguments are
stronger if you can back up what you say with
evidence.
It enables other people reading your work to find the
things you have referred to quickly and easily
It recognizes the intellectual input someone else has
made to your work - passing off someone else's work as
your own is called plagiarism.
IV .Bibliography and Annexure in the
Report : Their Significance

Annexure is a term substituted in


some legal documents for Appendix.
It gives the details about the content
other than literary work
It is important as it gives idea about
the glossary of important term
It also include questionnaire.
V. Drawing Conclusions, Suggestions and
Recommendations to the Concerned Persons.

The most significant part of the report:


Conclusion drawn for the data analysis.
It relates to the finding drawn from every question.
We try to emphasize on the gap for the research in
our conclusion.
On the basis of Conclusion pertaining to every
question we try to generalize things
Then out of these conclusions we try to give
Suggestion or Recommendations to the Client
Primary objective of Recommendation remains to
give problem solution to the problem in hand.
Assignment IV
Opening Data 11/04/2015
Closing Date 15/04/2015

What are the significance of Report Writing?


What are the steps involved in writing a Report?
What is the general Layout for writing a Report?
Give a detailed note on it.
What are the different types of report?
What are the precautions one should take while
writing a report ?
Syllabus - Unit IV.
I. Analysis of Data
II. Coding, Editing and Tabulation of Data
III. Various Kinds of Charts and Diagrams Used
in
Data Analysis
IV. Bar and Pie Diagrams and their Significance
V. Use of SPSS in Data Analysis
VI. Application and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
VII.Measurement and Central Tendency
VIII.Measure of Dispersion and their Advantages.
I. Analysis of Data
in the process of analysis,
relationships or differences supporting or
conflicting
with original or new hypotheses
should be subjected to statistical tests of
significance
to determine with what validity data can be said to
indicate any conclusions
Analysis serves the purpose of
Giving proper result.
Data to be made available for interpretation
Establishes relationship between different Variables
II. Processing Operations
II. Processing Operations
i) Editing
Editing is done to assure that the data are
accurate, consistent with other facts
gathered, uniformly entered, as
completed as possible and have been well
arranged to facilitate coding and tabulation.
a. Field Editing and Central Editiing.
II. Processing Operations
i) Editing
I. The Interviewer, Editor and
coder remain in constant touch.
II. Objective of Editing remain the
same throughout the editing
process.
III. Apart from numerical value we
may use colour for the same.
IV. They should notify with every
change made in answers.
V. Editors initials and the date of
editing should be placed on each
completed form or schedule
II. Processing Operations
ii) Coding
Coding refers to the process
of assigning numerals
Coding is necessary for
efficient analysis and through
it the several replies may be
reduced to a small number of
classes which contain the
critical information required
for analysis.
Computer based and manual
II. Processing Operations
iii) Classification
Classification according to attributes
can either be descriptive (such as
literacy, sex, honesty, etc.) or
numerical (such as weight, height,
income, etc.).
Classification according to class-
intervals
Data relating to income, production,
age, weight, etc
class-intervals
How may classes should be there?
How to choose class limits ?
Exclusive/Inclusive
How to determine the frequency of each
class ?
II. Processing Operations
iv) Tabulation.
Tabulation is the process of summarizing
raw data and displaying the same in
compact form (i.e., in the form of statistical
tables) for further analysis.
Tabulation is an orderly arrangement of data
in columns and rows.
Tabulation is essential because of the
following reasons.
1. It conserves space and reduces
explanatory and descriptive statement to a
minimum.
2. It facilitates the process of comparison.
3. It facilitates the summation of items and
the detection of errors and omissions.
4. It provides a basis for various statistical
computations.
III. Various Kinds of Charts and
Diagrams Used in
Data Analysis
Types of Graph
I. Bar Graph
II. Line Graph
III. Stacked
Graph
IV. Pie Graph
V. Pictograph
I. Bar Graph
It is used to make comparisons about groups of data

Production
250

200

150
Axis Title
100

50

0
Factory A Factory B Factory C Factory D
6
5
4
3
Series 1
2 Series 2
1 Series 3

0
Wheat
300

250

200

Axis Title 150

100

50

0
2011 2012 2013 2014
I. Bar Graph
Wheat Rice Cereals
2011 150 100 50
2012 175 125 75
2013 200 150 100
2014 225 175 125
250

200

150 Wheat
Rice
100
Cereals

50

0
2011 2012 2013 2014
II. Line Graph
Wheat
2011 150
2012 175
2013 200
2014 225
Wheat
250

200

150 Wheat
100

50

0
2011 2012 2013 2014
II. Line Graph
Wheat Rice Cereals
2011 150 100 50
2012 175 125 75
2013 200 150 100
2014 225 175 125
250

200

150 Wheat
Rice
100
Cereals

50

0
2011 2012 2013 2014
III. Stacked Graph
Wheat Rice Cereals
2011 150 100 50
2012 175 125 75
2013 200 150 100
2014 225 175 125

2014

2013
Wheat
Rice
2012 Cereals

2011

0 50 100 150 200 250


IV. Pie Chart
Sales

1st Qtr
2nd Qtr
3rd Qtr
4th Qtr
V. Pictograph
IV. Bar and Pie Diagrams and their
Significance
A bar chart is particularly useful
Series 1 when one or two categories
5 'dominate results.
4.5 It can be very clear and easy to
read.
4
Most people understand what is
3.5
presented without having to have
3 detailed statistical knowledge.
2.5 It can represent data expressed as
2 actual numbers, percentages and
Axis Title 1.5 frequencies.
1 A bar chart can represent either
0.5 discrete or continuous data.
0 If the data is discrete there should
be a gap between the bars (as in the
diagram above).
If the data is continuous there
should be no gap between the bars.
IV. Bar and Pie Diagrams and their
Significance
A pie chart shows
Sales
data in terms of
proportions of a
whole. The 'pie' is
4th Qtr; 9%
3rd Qtr; 10% divided into
segments that
2nd Qtr; 23% 1st Qtr; 59% represent this
proportion. This is
done by dividing
the angles at the
centre.
IV. Bar and Pie Diagrams and their
Significance
It is best used to present
Sales
the proportions of a sample.
It is most useful where one
or two results dominate
the findings.
4th Qtr; 9%
3rd Qtr; 10%
It can represent data
expressed as actual
numbers or percentages.
2nd Qtr; 23% 1st Qtr; 59% Do not use where there
are a large number of
categories, or where each
has a small, fairly equal
share, as this can be
unclear.
Calculation
No. of No. of Conversio No. of
Siblings Students n Degrees
0 4 4/30X360 48
1 12
2 8
3 3
4 2
More 1

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