MAE 4261: AIR-BREATHING ENGINES

Review of Airplane Performance

February 2, 2012

Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Department

Florida Institute of Technology

D. R. Kirk
 LECTURE OUTLINE

So far we have focused on characterizing propulsion system

Also must look at behavior of entire airplane

How fast can airplane fly?
How far can airplane fly on a single tank of fuel?
How long can airplane stay in air on a single tank of fuel?
How fast and how high can it climb?
How does it perform?
 DRAG POLAR
Drag for complete airplane, not just wing
2
C C L2
C D Cd L
C D C D ,0
eAR eAR
Wing or airfoil Entire Airplane

Engine Nacelles Tail Surfaces

Landing Gear
 DRAG POLAR
CD,0 is parasite drag coefficient at zero lift (L=0)
CD,i drag coefficient due to lift (induced drag)
Oswald efficiency factor, e, includes all effects from airplane
CD,0 and e are known aerodynamics quantities of airplane

C L2
CD CD ,0 C D , 0 C D ,i
eAR
 4 FORCES ACTING ON AIRPLANE
Model airplane as rigid body with four natural forces acting on it
1. Lift, L
Acts perpendicular to flight path (perpendicular to relative wind)
2. Drag, D
Acts parallel to flight path direction (parallel to relative wind)
3. Propulsive Thrust, T
For most airplanes propulsive thrust acts in flight path direction
May also be inclined with respect to flight path angle, T, usually a small angle
4. Weight, W
Always acts vertically toward center of earth
Inclined at angle, , with respect to lift direction

Apply Newtons Second Law (F=ma) to curvilinear flight path

Force balance in direction parallel to flight path
Force balance in direction perpendicular to flight path
 GENERAL EQUATIONS OF MOTION

dV
Fparallel T cos T D W sin ma m dt
2
V
Fperpendicular T cos T D W sin m r
c
 STATIC VS. DYNAMIC ANALYSES
Two forms of these equations:

1. Static Performance: Zero Accelerations (dV/dt = 0, V2/rc = 0)

Maximum velocity
Maximum rate of climb
Maximum range
Maximum endurance

2. Dynamic Performance: Accelerating Flight

Take-off and landing characteristics
Turning flight
Accelerated flight and rate of climb
 LEVEL, UNACCELERATED FLIGHT
Equations of motion reduce to very simple expressions
Aerodynamic drag is balanced by thrust of engine
Aerodynamic lift is balanced by weight of airplane

For most conventional airplanes T is small enough such that cos(T) ~ 1

T D
L W
 LEVEL, UNACCELERATED FLIGHT

T D
L W W W
1
T D V SC D
2
2
TR


CL
CD



L
D

1
L W V SC L
2

2 TR is thrust required to fly at a given

velocity in level, unaccelerated flight
T CD
Notice that minimum TR is when airplane
W CL is at maximum L/D
Airplanes power plant must produce a net
thrust which is equal to drag
 THRUST REQUIREMENT
TR for airplane at given altitude varies with velocity
Thrust required curve: TR vs. V
 THRUST REQUIREMENT
Select a flight speed, V
Calculate CL
W
CL
1
V2 S
2
Calculate CD

C L2
CD CD,0
eAR
Calculate CL/CD
Calculate TR

W
This is how much thrust engine TR
must produce to fly at V CL
C D

 THRUST REQUIREMENT
Thrust required, TR, varies inversely with L/D
Minimum TR when airplane is flying at L/D is a maximum
L/D is a measure of aerodynamic efficiency of an airplane
Maximum aerodynamic efficiency Minimum TR

Usually around 2-8

 THRUST REQUIREMENT
Different points on TR curve correspond to different angles of attack
1
L W V2 SC L q SC L
2
D q SC D
At b:
Small q At a:
Large CL (CL2) and (support W) Large q
D large Small CL and
D large
THRUST REQUIRED VS. FLIGHT VELOCITY

TR D q SC D q S C D , 0 C D ,i
C L2
TR q SC D ,0 q S
eAR
Zero-Lift TR Lift-Induced TR
(Parasitic Drag) (Induced Drag)

Zero-Lift TR ~ V2
(Parasitic Drag)

Lift-Induced TR ~ 1/V2
(Induced Drag)
 THRUST REQUIRED VS. FLIGHT VELOCITY
W2
TR q SC D , 0
q SeAR At point of minimum TR, dTR/dV=0
dTR dTR dV (or dTR/dq=0)

dq dV dq
dTR W2
SC D , 0 2 0
dq q SeAR
C L2
CD,0 C D ,i
eAR
Zero-Lift Drag = Induced Drag
At minimum TR and maximum L/D
 MAXIMUM VELOCITY
Maximum flight speed occurs when TA=TR
Reduced throttle settings, TR < TA
Cannot physically achieve more thrust than TA which engine can provide
 AIRPLANE POWER PLANTS
TR is dictated by aerodynamics and
weight of airplane
Thrust available, TA, is associated
with engine

Two types of engines common in

aviation today
1. Reciprocating piston engine with
propeller
Power average light-weight,
general aviation aircraft

2. Turbojet engine
Large commercial transports
and military aircraft
AIRPLANE POWER PLANTS
 THRUST VS. POWER
Jets Engines (turbojets, turbofans for military and commercial applications) are
usually rate in Thrust
Thrust is a Force with units (kg m/s2)
For example, the PW4000-112 is rated at 98,000 lb of thrust

Piston-Driven Engines are usually rated in terms of Power

Power is a precise term and can be expressed as:
Energy/time with units (kg m2/s2) / s = kg m2/s3 = Watts
Note that Energy is expressed in Joules = kg m2/s2
Force*velocity with units (kg m/s2)*(m/s) = kg m2/s3 = Watts
Usually rated in terms of horsepower (1 hp=550 ft lb/s = 746 W)

Example:
Airplane is level, unaccelerated flight at a given altitude with speed V
Power Required, PR=TR*V
 POWER REQUIRED
W
PR TRV V
CL
C D

1 2W
L W V2 SC L V
2 SC
W 2W
PR
CL SC
C D

2W 3C D2 1
PR PR varies inversely as CL3/2/CD
SC L
3
C 32
L TR varies inversely as CL/CD
CD

 POWER REQUIRED

PR vs. V qualitatively
resembles TR vs. V
 POWER REQUIRED
PR TRV DV q SC DV q S C D ,0 C D ,i V
C L2
PR q SC D ,0V q SV
eAR
Zero-Lift PR Lift-Induced PR

Zero-Lift PR ~ V3

Lift-Induced PR ~ 1/V
 POWER REQUIRED
2
1 W
PR V3 SC D , 0
2 1
V SeAR
2
dPR 3 2 1
V S C D , 0 C D ,i 0
dV 2 3

At point of minimum PR, PTR/dV=0

1
CD ,0 C D ,i
3
 POWER REQUIRED
V for minimum PR is less than V for minimum TR

1
CD,0 C D ,i
3

C D , 0 C D ,i
 POWER REQUIRED
V for minimum PR is less than V for minimum TR

dPR
0
dV

d
PR
dTR V

0
dV dV
POWER AVAILABLE
POWER AVAILABLE AND MAXIMUM VELOCITY

Propeller Drive
Engine
POWER AVAILABLE AND MAXIMUM VELOCITY

Jet Engine
ALTITUDE EFFECTS ON POWER REQUIRED AND AVAILABLE

Recall PR = f()
1
0 2
VALT V0

1
0 2
PR , ALT PR ,0

ALTITUDE EFFECTS ON POWER REQUIRED AND AVAILABLE

Vmax,ALT < Vmax,sea-level

 RATE OF CLIMB
Boeing 777: Lift-Off Speed ~ 180 MPH
How fast can it climb to a cruising altitude of 30,000 ft?
 RATE OF CLIMB

T D W sin
L W cos
 RATE OF CLIMB

T D W sin
TV DV WV sin
TV DV
V sin
W Vertical velocity
Rate of Climb: R / C V sin

TV is power available
DV is level-flight power required (for small neglect W)
TV- DV is excess power
 RATE OF CLIMB

Propeller Drive
Jet Engine
Engine

Maximum R/C Occurs when Maximum Excess Power

 GLIDING FLIGHT

sin D
T 0
cos L To maximize range, smallest
D W sin 1 occurs at (L/D)max
tan
L W cos L
D
 RANGE AND ENDURANCE
Range: Total distance (measured with respect to the ground) traversed by airplane
on a single tank of fuel
Endurance: Total time that airplane stays in air on a single tank of fuel

Parameters that maximize range are different from those that maximize endurance
Parameters are different for propeller-powered and jet-powered aircraft

Fuel Consumption Definitions

Propeller-Powered:
Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC)
Definition: Weight of fuel consumed per unit power per unit time

Jet-Powered:
Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption (TSFC)
Definition: Weight of fuel consumed per unit thrust per unit time
 PROPELLER-DRIVEN: RANGE AND ENDURANCE
SFC: Weight of fuel consumed per unit power per unit time

lb of fuel
SFC
HP hour
ENDURANCE: To stay in air for longest amount of time, use minimum number of
pounds of fuel per hour

lb of fuel
SFC HP
hour
Minimum lb of fuel per hour obtained with minimum HP
Maximum endurance for a propeller-driven airplane occurs when
airplane is flying at minimum power required
Maximum endurance for a propeller-driven airplane occurs when
airplane is flying at a velocity such that CL3/2/CD is a maximum
 PROPELLER-DRIVEN: RANGE AND ENDURANCE
SFC: Weight of fuel consumed per unit power per unit time

lb of fuel
SFC
HP hour
RANGE: To cover longest distance use minimum pounds of fuel per mile

lb of fuel SFC HP

mile V

Minimum lb of fuel per hour obtained with minimum HP/V

Maximum range for a propeller-driven airplane occurs when airplane
is flying at a velocity such that CL/CD is a maximum
 PROPELLER-DRIVEN: RANGE BREGUET FORMULA

C L Winitial

R ln
SFC C D W final

To maximize range:
Largest propeller efficiency,
Lowest possible SFC
Highest ratio of Winitial to Wfinal, which is obtained with the largest fuel weight
Fly at maximum L/D
PROPELLER-DRIVEN: RANGE BREGUET FORMULA

C L Winitial

R ln
SFC C D W final

Propulsion Structures and Materials

Aerodynamics
 PROPELLER-DRIVEN: ENDURACE BREGUET FORMULA

3
CL 2
2 S 2 W final2 Winitial2
1 1 1
E
SFC C D

To maximize endurance:
Largest propeller efficiency,
Lowest possible SFC
Largest fuel weight
Fly at maximum CL3/2/CD
Flight at sea level
 JET-POWERED: RANGE AND ENDURANCE
TSFC: Weight of fuel consumed per thrust per unit time

lb of fuel
TSFC
lb of thrust hour

ENDURANCE: To stay in air for longest amount of time, use minimum number of
pounds of fuel per hour

lb of fuel
TSFC Thrust
hour
Minimum lb of fuel per hour obtained with minimum thrust
Maximum endurance for a jet-powered airplane occurs when
airplane is flying at minimum thrust required
Maximum endurance for a jet-powered airplane occurs when
airplane is flying at a velocity such that CL/CD is a maximum
 JET-POWERED: RANGE AND ENDURANCE
TSFC: Weight of fuel consumed per unit power per unit time

lb of fuel
TSFC
lb of thrust hour

RANGE: To cover longest distance use minimum pounds of fuel per mile
lb of fuel SFC Thrust

mile V
Minimum lb of fuel per hour obtained with minimum Thrust/V

TR 1 2W 1
S CD 1
V 2 SC L CL 2
CD
Maximum range for a jet-powered airplane occurs when airplane is flying
at a velocity such that CL1/2/CD is a maximum
 JET-POWERED: RANGE BREGUET FORMULA

1
2 1 CL 2 W 12 W 12
R2
S TSFC C D initial final

To maximize range:
Minimum TSFC
Maximum fuel weight
Flight at maximum CL1/2/CD
Fly at high altitudes
 JET-POWERED: ENDURACE BREGUET FORMULA

1 C L Winitial

E ln
TSFC C D W final

To maximize endurance:
Minimum TSFC
Maximum fuel weight
Flight at maximum L/D
 TAKE-OFF AND LANDING ANALYSES

dV
F ma m Rolling resistance
dt
F r = 0.02
dV dt
m
F
V t dV
m F T D R T D r W L m
ds Vdt dt
V 2m
s s: lift-off distance
2F
NUMERICAL SOLUTION FOR TAKE-OFF
 USEFUL APPROXIMATION (T >> D, R)
sL.O.: lift-off distance

2
1.44W
s L.O.
g SC L ,maxT
Lift-off distance very sensitive to weight, varies as W 2
Depends on ambient density
Lift-off distance may be decreased:
Increasing wing area, S
Increasing CL,max
Increasing thrust, T
TURNING FLIGHT
L cos W
Fr L W
2 2

L
n Load Factor
W
Fr W n 2 1
2
V
Fr m
R
2
V
R: Turn Radius R
g n2 1
d V g n 2 1

: Turn Rate dt R V
EXAMPLE: PULL-UP MANEUVER

Fr L W W n 1
V2
Fr m
R
2
V
R
g n 1
g n 1

V
STRUCTURAL LIMITS
 V-n DIAGRAMS
1
V
L 2 L
2
SC
n
W W
1 2 C L , max
nmax V
2 W
S