Encoding and Transmission Choices

Analog data, Analog signal Analog data, Digital signal

voice analog analog digital

Telephone CODEC

Digital data, Analog signal Digital data, Digital signal

digital analog digital Digital digital

Modem
transmitter

Data source can be analog or digital

Transmission can be analog or digital
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 Encoding
How do we encode the data for transmission so that it can be
recognized by the receiver?

Data: 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0

Sender:

Transmission media

Receiver:
1 wheres the clock? 0 0 1 0 1 0

how many 0 bits here?

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 Reception Problems
Receiver must determine the start of each bit period (clock
synchronization).
Receiver must detect where each frame starts and ends.
Signal contains noise
thermal noise, impulse noise, delay distortion, ...
in general, higher transmission rate means more noise

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 Desirable Features of Encoding
Efficient use of bandwidth
Clock recovery (synchronization)
sender can recover timing of original signal
Error detection
some codes enable decoder to detect bit errors (higher
layers contain additional error detection)
Error recovery
after an error, can receiver find the start of next frame?

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 Desirable Features of Encoding
Minimize high frequency component
lower frequencies mean less transmitted energy, less
radiated EMF in electrical systems, cheaper hardware
Concentrate info in the middle of the transmitted spectrum
distortion and interference are worse at edges of band
No net d.c. component
d.c. component requires direct physical attachment of
equipment for electrical transmission. No d.c. means el
ectrical isolation can be done: protects equipment, less
interference.

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 Digital Encoding Formats
0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
NRZ

NRZI

Bipolar -AMI

Pseudoternary

Manchester

Differential
Manchester

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 Spectral Distribution
1.5
Mean square voltage per unit bandwidth

B8ZS,
NRZ-L, HDB3
NRZI
1.0 AMI,
Pseudoternary

Manchester,
0.5 Differential Manchester

0
0.5 1.0 1.5

-0.5 Normalized frequency (f/r)

No d.c. component (energy at f = 0)

Desirable Characteristics: Efficient use of bandwidth: small f/r
Signal concentrated in center of band
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 Nonreturn to Zero (NRZ)
0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1

1 = power on (signal)
0 = power off (no signal)
used on low speed links, e.g. serial ports
Problems:
lack of clock recovery during long string of 0 or 1 bits
has d.c. component
baseline wander during long string of 0 or 1 bits

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 Nonreturn to Zero Inverted (NRZI)
0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1

1 = change of signal level (on-off or off-on)

0 = no change of signal level
NRZI is an example of differential encoding
used with with 4B/5B on fast ethernet
fixes clocking problem for long string of 1 bits
Problems:
lack of clock recovery during long string of 0 bits
has d.c. component
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 Manchester Encoding
0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1

Always transition in middle of bit period:

0 = low-to-high transition
1 = high-to-low transition
Transition at beginning of bit period when necessary
used for 10Mbps ethernet over coax and twisted pair
good clock recovery, good signal recovery, no d.c. comp.
inefficient use of bandwidth: 10Mbps ethernet uses a
20Mbps signaling rate! Not used for fast ethernet.
data-dependent high frequency component
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 Differential Manchester
0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1

Mid-bit transition is used only for clocking

0 = transition at beginning of bit period (low-to-high or
high-to-low, depending on previous output level)
1 = no transition at beginning of bit period
used in IEEE 802.5 Token Ring at 4Mbps and 16Mbps
same properties as Manchester encoding, but better signal
detection and clocking in presence of noise
inefficient use of bandwidth: 2B signaling for a data rate B
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 Bipolar-Alternate Mark Inversion
0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1

Uses 3 signal levels: +V, 0, -V

0 = no signal (0 voltage)
1 = alternating +V and -V
no net d.c. component (alternating +V and -V)
can detect some bit errors (consecutive +V or -V)
Problems:
loss of synchronization during long string of 0 bits
inefficient use of bandwidth: with 3 signal levels you
could transmit log2(3)= 1.58 bits of information
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 Pseudoternary
0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
Bipolar -AMI

Pseudoternary

Same as Bipolar-AMI except reverses signaling:

1 = no signal (0 voltage)
0 = alternating +V and -V

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Bipolar with 8-Zeros Substitution (B8ZS)
Modification to Bipolar-AMI to eliminate string of 0 bits:
Replace any octet of all 0 (00000000) with:
000+-0-+ if previous non-zero signal was +
000-+0+- if previous non-zero signal was -
This causes 2 code violations, so receiver knows it is a
substitution byte, not a transmission error
good clock recovery
most of the transmitted energy is in middle of the spectrum;
no d.c. component
B8ZS is used with pulse code modulation (PCM) on T1
lines (1.544 Mbps); B3ZS and PCM are used on T3 lines.
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 B8ZS and HDB3
Bit value 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

Bipolar-AMI

B8ZS

HDB3

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 High Density Bipolar-3 Zeros (HDB3)
Modification to Bipolar-AMI to eliminate zero strings:
Replace any 4 zero bits (0000) with:
odd even
000+ -00- if previous non-zero signal was +
000- +00+ if previous non-zero signal was -
Alternate (odd/even occurrence) between the two
Each replacement causes one code violation
good clock recovery; most of energy is in middle of the
spectrum; no d.c. component; not as robust as B8ZS
HDB3 is used on E-series public carrier lines (E1 is 2.048Mbps).

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 4B/5B
Use 5 bit signals for each 4 data bits. The 5 bit sequences are
chosen so that there are never more than 3 consecutive zeros
in the output stream. When used with NRZI, will have at leas
t 2 signal transitions in every 5 bits.
Input Output Input Output Other Output
0000 11110 1000 10010 Line idle 11111
0001 01001 1001 10011 STX 11000 10001
0010 10100 1010 10110 ETX 01101 00111
0011 10101 1011 10111
0100 01010 1100 11010
0101 01011 1101 11011
0110 01110 1110 11100
0111 01111 1111 11101

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 4B/5B with NRZI
binary 4B/5B
(ushort) 260 0000 0001 0000 0100 11110 01001 11110 01010

NRZI

4B/5B with NRZI is used for

fast ethernet over fiber (100baseFX)
FDDI
100Mbps Token Ring over fiber
bandwidth is 125MHz for 100Mbps data rate
not used with twisted pair due to high radiated EMF
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 Bandwidth Comparison
To send data at a rate D (bps) how much bandwidth do the
encoding methods use?

Encoding Used for Bandwidth

Manchester 10Mbps Ethernet, Token Ring 2D
B8ZS, HDB3 T1, E1 lines D log23 = 1.58D
4B/5B+NRZI Fast Ethernet over fiber, FDDI 1.25D

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 MLT-3
MLT-3 uses 4B/5B followed by a 3 level signaling:
0 = no change in output level
1 = transition from 0 to -V; next 1 returns to 0;
next 1 transition to +V; next 1 return to 0
used for 100baseTX, CDDI (100Mbps FDDI over copper),
and 100Mbps Token Ring on twisted pair
most of the transmitted signal energy is below 30MHz
no dc component; can detect some bit errors

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 8B/10B
Encodes 8 data bits using 10 signal bits, similar to 4B/5B, but
with these advantages:
minimum deviation in number of transmitted 1 and 0
bits in any data sequence, using disperity control
better error detection capability than 4B/5B
used for Gigabit ethernet on fiber optic cable and Fibre
Channel
balance of transmitted 1 and 0 bits is important to avoid
data dependent heating of the laser, which would increase t
he error rate

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