widespread application in many areas of genetic analysis:- (1)Medical applications. (2)Infectious disease applications. (3)Forensic applications. (4)Research applications. Medical applications The first application of PCR was for genetic testing, where a sample of DNA is analyzed for the presence of genetic disease mutations, the Sickle gene is the best example. Prospective parents can be tested for being genetic carriers, or their children might be tested for actually being affected by a disease. DNA samples for Prenatal testing can be obtained by amniocentesis (removal of amniotic fluids from uterus, test done during pregnancy). PCR analysis is also essential to preimplantation genetic diagnosis, where individual cells of a developing embryo are tested for mutations. PCR can be used to determine the sex of embryos , thus the sex of in vitro fertilized human embryo could be determined using Y-chromosome specific primers before their implantation in the uterus. Many forms of cancer involve alterations to oncogenes. By using PCR-based tests to study these mutations, therapy procedures can sometimes be individually customized to a patient. Infectious Diseases Applications Characterization and detection of infectious disease organisms have been revolutionized by PCR:- The Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), responsible for AIDS, is a difficult target to find and eradicate , the earliest tests for infection relied on the presence of antibodies to the virus circulating in the bloodstream. However, antibodies don't appear until many weeks after infection. PCR have been developed that can detect as little as one viral genome among the DNA of over 50,000 host cells: 1. Infections can be detected earlier, 2. donated blood can be screened directly for the virus, 3. newborns can be immediately tested for infection, and 4. the effects of antiviral treatments can be quantified. Some disease organisms, such as Tuberculosis, are difficult to sample from patients and slow to be grown in the laboratory. PCR-based tests have allowed detection of small numbers of disease organisms (both live or dead), in convenient samples. Detailed genetic analysis can also be used to detect antibiotic resistance, allowing immediate and effective therapy. Forensic Applications
The development of PCR-based DNA
fingerprinting protocols has seen widespread application in forensics. In its most discriminating form, DNA fingerprinting can uniquely discriminate any person from the entire population of the world. DNA samples can be isolated from a crime scene, and compared to that from suspects, or from a DNA database of earlier evidence or convicts. Less discriminating forms of DNA fingerprinting can help in Parental testing, where an individual is matched with their close relatives. DNA from unidentified human remains can be tested, and compared with that from possible parents, siblings, or children. Research Applications