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STEAM TURBINES

The pelton turbine


The pelton turbine (also free-jet turbine) was invented 1880 by L.A.
Pelton. It possesses spoon-shaped shovels, the jet hits the impeller
tangentially, gets divided by the two shovels and transfers an
impulse. The pelton turbine is used in storage power stations with
downward gradients up to 2000 meters and can contain up to 6
nozzles.
The francis turbine
The reaction turbine invented by J.B. Francis 1849 is hit by the jet
almost axially (toward the axle) and radially (away from the center).
The rotor blades can be adjusted, in order to ensure an even run.
The Kaplan turbine
The Kaplan turbine, developed around 1915 by the Austrian
V.Kaplan, looks like a marine propeller. The jet is led thereby axially
on the freely adjustable shovel pages

From the water- to the steam turbine


Charles Parsons, the Swede Carl Gustav Laval and the American
Charles Curtis, who made crucial contributions for the development
of the steam turbine
PRINCIPLES OF STEAM TURBINE

IMPULSE PRINCIPLE
The impulse turbine consists basically of a rotor mounted on a
shaft that is free to rotate in a set of bearings. The outer rim of
the rotor carries a set of curved blades, and the whole assembly
is enclosed in an airtight case. Nozzles direct steam against the
blades and turn the rotor.
The energy to rotate an impulse turbine is derived from the
kinetic energy of the steam flowing through the nozzles. The term
impulse means that the force that turns the turbine comes from
the impact of the steam on the blades. it uses the kinetic energy
from the steam as it leaves a steam nozzle.
Steam nozzles are located at the turbine inlet. As the steam
passes through a nozzle, potential energy is converted to kinetic
energy. This steam is directed toward the turbine blades and
turns the rotor. The velocity of the steam is reduced in passing
over the blades. Some of its kinetic energy has been transferred
to the blades to turn the rotor.
Impulse turbines may be used to drive forced draft blowers,
pumps, and main propulsion turbines.
REACTION PRINCIPLE
The reaction turbine uses the reaction of a steam jet to drive the rotor. The
steam jet exerts a force on the nozzle and an equal reactive force on the
turbine blades in the opposite direction. THIS IS THE FORCE THAT DRIVES THE
TURBINE.
In the reaction turbine, stationary blades attached to the turbine casing act
as nozzles and direct the steam to the moving blades. The moving blades
mounted on the rotor act as nozzles. Most reaction turbines have several
alternating rows of stationary and moving nozzle blades .
The reaction turbine has all the advantages of the impulse-type turbine,
plus a slower operating speed and greater efficiency. The alternating
rows of fixed and moving blades transfers the heat energy of the steam
to kinetic energy, then to mechanical energy
In modern steam turbines not only one impeller is propelled, but several
being in a series. Between them idlers are situated, which don't turn. The
gas changes its direction passing an idler, in order to perform optimally work
again in the next impeller. Turbines with several impellers are called multi-
level. The principle was developed 1883 by Parsons. With the cooling gas
expands. With the number of passed impellers also the volume increases,
which leads to a larger diameter of the impellers. Because of that, multi-level
turbines are always conical
Position in the Rankine cycle
The steam turbine falls between point 1 and 2 of the Rankine cycle . The
major function of the steam turbine is to reduce the pressure of the steam
isoentropically. The change in enthalpy causes the heat energy to be
converted into mechanical energy which is taken out as shaft work. Main
components responsible for these are nozzles and blades.
Nozzles increase the velocity of steam flowing through it since it is a
converging nozzle with mach number < 1 hence the pressure decreases and
velocity increases.
Blades
Impulse type of blades change the direction of flow ,so the velocity vector
changes and hence a change in the momentum and according to Newtons
second law this gives the force for driving the shaft.
Reaction type of blades behaves similarly as that of nozzles they allow a
steam pressure drop. This in turn produces an increase in steam speed and
causes a reaction or back thrust on the blading.
Impulse main propulsion
turbine.
CLASSIFICATION OF STEAM TURBINES
Turbines may be further classified according to the
following:
Type and arrangement of staging
Direction of steam flow
Repetition of steam flow
Division of steam flow
A turbine may also be classified by whether it is a
condensing unit (exhaust to a condenser at a
pressure below atmospheric pressure) or a non
condensing unit (exhausts to another system such
as the auxiliary exhaust steam system at a pressure
above atmospheric pressure).
1.According to number of pressure stages:
(a) Single stage turbines with one or more velocity stages usually of
small power capacities; these turbines are mostly used for driving
centrifugal compressors, blowers and other similar machinery.
(b) Multi stage and reaction turbines; they are made in a wide range of
power capacities varying from small to large.

2. According to direction of steam flow:


a) Axial turbines in which steam flows in a direction parallel to the axis
of the turbine.
b) Radial turbines in which steam flows in a direction perpendicular to
the axis of the turbine: one or more low-pressure stages in such
turbines are made axial.
3. According to no. of cylinders
a) Single cylinder turbines.
b) Double cylinder turbines
c) Three cylinder turbines.
d) Four cylinder turbines
Multistage turbines which have their rotors mounted on one and the
same shaft and coupled to single generator are known as single shaft
turbines;turbines with separate rotor shafts for each cylinder placed
parallel to each other are known as multiaxial turbines.
4.According to method of governing :

a) Turbines with throttle governing in which fresh steam enters through


one or more simultaneously operated throttle valves.

b) Turbines with nozzle governing in which steam enters through two


or more consecutively opening regulators.

c) Turbines with by pass governing in which steam turbines besides


being fed to the first stage is also directly fed to one, two or even
three intermediate stages of the turbine

5.According to heat drop process

a) Condensing turbines with generators in these steam at a pressure


lees than atmospheric is directed to a condenser; besides steam is
also extracted from intermediate stages for feed water heating, the
number of such extractions usually being from 2-3 to as much as 8-
9.the latent heat of exhaust steam during the process of
condensation is completely lost in these turbines.
b) Condensing turbines with one or two intermediate stage extractions at
specific pressures for industrial and heating purposes.

c) Back pressure turbines, the exhaust steam is used for industrial or


heating purposes; To this type of turbines can also be added turbines
with deteriorated vacuum, the exhaust steam of which is used for
heating and process purposes.

d) Topping turbines; these turbines are also of the back pressure type
with the difference that the exhaust steam from these turbines is further
utilized in medium and low pressure condensing turbines.

e) Back pressure turbines with steam extraction from intermediate stages


at specific pressure; turbines of this type are meant for supplying the
consumer with steam of various pressures and temperature conditions.

f) Low pressure turbines in which the exhaust steam from reciprocating


steam engines, power hammers, presses,etc.,is utilized for power
generation purposes.

g) Mixed pressure turbines with two or three pressure stages, with supply
of exhaust steam to its intermediate stages.
6. According to the steam conditions at inlet to
turbine:
(a) Low pressure turbines, using steam at a
pressure of 1.2 to 2 ata.
(b) Medium pressure turbines, using steam at a
pressure of upto 40 ata.
(c) High-pressure turbines.utilizing at pressures
above 40 ata.
(d) Turbines of very high pressures, utilizing steam
at pressures of 170 ata and higher and
temperatures of 550 degree Celsius and higher.
(e) Turbines of super critical pressures, using steam
at pressures of 225 ata and above.
1.Major sub - assemblies consisting of
a) Rotor with associated blading.
b) Stator casing along with steam chest , guide blade carrier and
gland bush.
c) Bearing pedestals and bearing.
d) Emergency stop valves and control valves.
e) Hydraulic or motor operated turning gear.
f) Hydraulic shaft lifting system.
g) Gearing and shaft driven oil pump.
h) Turbo gear coupling.
i)
j) Governing system for speed control.
k) Lubricating oil system.
CONSTRUCTION FEATURES
Foundations
Turbine foundations are built up from a structural
foundation in the hull to provide a rigid supporting
base. All turbines are subjected to varying degrees of
temperature-from that existing during a secured
condition to that existing during full-power operation.
Therefore, means are provided to allow for expansion
and contraction.
At the forward end of the turbine, there are various
ways to give freedom of movement. Elongated bolt
holes or grooved sliding seats are used so that the
forward end of the turbine can move fore and aft as
either expansion or contraction takes place. The
forward end of the turbine may also be mounted with a
flexible I-beam that will flex either fore or aft.
Casings
The materials used to construct turbines will vary somewhat
depending on the steam and power conditions for which the
turbine is designed. Turbine casings are made of cast carbon
steel for nonsuperheated steam applications .
superheated applications use casings made of carbon molyb
denum steel. For turbine casings used on submarines, a
percentage of chrome stainless steel is used, which is more
resistant to steam erosion than carbon steel. Each casing has a
steam chest to receive the incoming high-pressure steam. This
steam chest delivers the steam to the first set of nozzles or
blades.
Nozzles
The primary function of the nozzles is to convert the thermal energy
of steam into kinetic energy. The secondary function of the nozzles
is to direct the steam against the blades.
Rotors
Rotors (forged wheels and shaft) are manufactured from steel
alloys. The primary purpose of a turbine rotor is to carry the moving
blades that convert the steam's kinetic energy to rotating
mechanical energy
Bearings
All main turbines and most auxiliary units have a bearing at each end
of the rotor. Bearings are generally classified as sliding surface
(sleeve and thrust) or as rolling contact (antifriction ball or roller
bearings).
The rotor of every turbine must be positioned radially and axially by
bearings. Radial bearings carry and support the weight of the rotor
and maintain the correct radial clearance between the rotor and
casing.
Axial (thrust) bearings limit the fore-and-aft travel of the rotor.
Thrust bearings take care of any axial thrust, which may develop on a
turbine rotor and hold the turbine rotor within definite axial positions.
Shaft Packing Glands
Shaft packing glands prevent the leaking of steam out of or air into
the turbine casing where the turbine rotor shaft extends through
the turbine casing. Labyrinth and carbon rings are two types of
packing. They are used either separately or in combination.
Labyrinth packing consists of rows of metallic strips or fins. The
strips fasten to the gland liner so there is a small space between
the strips and the shaft. As the steam from the turbine casing leaks
through the small space between the packing strips and the shaft,
steam pressure gradually reduces.
Carbon packing rings restrict the passage of steam along the
shaft in much the same manner as labyrinth packing strips.
Carbon packing rings mount around the shaft and are held in
place by springs.

Three or four carbon rings are usually used in each gland. Each
ring fits into a separate compartment of the gland housing and
consists of two, three, or four segments that are butt-jointed to
each other. A garter spring is used to hold these segments
together. The use of keepers (lugs or stop pins) prevent the
rotation of the carbon rings when the shaft rotates. The outer
carbon ring compartment connects to a drain line
TURBINE SHAFT SEALING

.
cross section of steam
turbine 25 mw
The bolted union between the lower part of the outer casing and
the rear bearing forms the fixed point of the casing, from which
the turbine casing expands in a forward direction on heating up.
The outer casing of the turbine comprises the admission section,
the steam
exhaust section and a centre section, whose length is
determined by the required number of blade stages. The sections
are manufactured of cast-steel and are cast in one piece.
The centre section is divided into sectors of differing pressure.
The limit of each pressure chamber is defined by the
corresponding web for mounting the appropriate guide blade
carrier.
The upper part of the outer casing supports the cast-on
admission section.This is designed as a transverse pipe, at each
end of which an emergency stop valve and a main steam inlet
are provided
Front bearing
The front bearing consists essentially of the bearing block, the axial
bearing support with the axial bearing, the radial bearing and the sealing
ring. The radial bearing rests in the lower part of the bearing block. the
lower part of the bearing block is bolted firmly to the sub-structure

The fixed point of the turbine casing is located within the exhaust steam
region, whereas the fixed point of the turbine rotor is located in the axial
bearing.

In order to restrict the differential play between moving and stationary


parts, the axial bearing is installed in an axial bearing support, which is
capable of axial movement.
The axial bearing support is linked horizontally to the turbine casing by
means of two rods and follows axial expansion of the turbine casing
bymeans of sliding guide rails in the lower part of the bearing block
Rear bearing
The bearing block, which comprises an upper and a lower part, is attached
to machined surfaces of the base frame
Turbine rotor and bearings
The turbine rotor together with the two axial bearing thrust shaft
collars are forged from a single ingot. It is supported in two radial
bearings lubricated by means of pressurized oil The axial bearing
is an effectively two-sided thrust bearing with pivoted-pad blocks.
It fixes the turbine rotor relative to the casing and takes up the
residual steam thrust of the turbine blading. The axial bearing
forms the fixedpoint of the turbine rotor in the front bearing block.
The turbine rotor is dragged forward by the axial bearing support
on heating-up of the turbine casing.
Since the turbine rotor also warms up at the same time and
consequently expands, the coupling flange at the rear end of the
rotor experiences only a small axial movement relative to the
fixed point of the turbine
Steam chamber

The steam chamber is divided axially. The nozzle groups are contained in its

upper part. The lower part is designed to provide ventilation protection for the

control stage. The steam chamber rests on shims level with the rotor axis so

as to allow thermal movement. Lateral displacement is prevented by means of

an eccentric guide in the lower part of the outer casing.

The steam chamber is fixed axially by means of a web fixed in the front part

of the casing. The steam chamber is connected to the steam inlet chest of the

outer casing by means of steam-tight angular rings, arranged so as to be capable

of thermal movement.

In conjunction with the seal strips caulked into the turbine rotor, the steam
chamber also acts as the seal shell above the balance piston.
EXHAUST SECTION
FRONT SUPPORT
Thrust balance
A balance piston is provided within the steam
admission region to compensate for the axial thrust
generated by the moving blading. The balance
piston is dimensioned so that the effect of the steam
pressure on the annular surfaces in the
corresponding pressure chambers on both sides of
the piston generates a resulting steam force . This
force is opposed to the blading steam thrust. The
resulting axial force is dimensioned so that it can be
taken up safely by the axial bearing
Sealing of the casing

The steam chambers of the turbine casing are sealed by means of sealing
shells with respect to the atmosphere in the region of the rotor penetrations.
For this purpose, the sealing shells are provided with caulked seal-points,
which, in conjunction with the seal-points caulked into the turbine rotor,
guarantee contactless sealing.

The seal-points arranged one after the other form a labyrinth seal. The sealing
effect is based on conversion of pressure energy into kinetic energy with
subsequent conversion into heat by creating turbulence in the flow.

The pressure is reduced to such an extent that only an extremely small


overpressure remains at the last annular gap. The major portion of the leakage
steam flow is removed at the central region of the sealing shell. Thus only a
relatively small portion of the steam flow reaches the vent stack located at the
outlet of the sealing shell and thus escapes to the atmosphere.
Sealing shells
The sealing shells serve the purpose of sealing between the outer casing and
rotor on the steam end. Besides sealing against internal excess pressures, the
ingress of ambient air in the event of an internal partial vacuum must be reliably
prevented.
Depending on the arrangement of the sealing plates of the rotor and shell, the
sealing shells form a contact-free labyrinth or "peak-peak" seal.

The sealing shell is axially split, and the halves are bolted to one another. On
the outer circumference of the sealing shell body, there is a surrounding slot
with which the shell is fixed radially and axially in the outer casing.
The inner contour of the sealing shell features recessed slots into which Lshaped
shrouding is caulked.
The sealing shell is subdivided into three areas of differing width. Slots are
worked in between the inner and middle areas to pass through steam. On the
inside, between the middle and outer areas, there is a surrounding slot featuring
a drainage port in the bottom shelf and a slit-shaped opening in the top
shell. This is where the rectangular flange connection is located on the
outer contour, to which the vapour line is connected
Operating principle
The sealing effect is based on the principle of conversion of pressure energy
to velocity energy followed by eddying. The gap between rotary and static
elements and the design as a labyrinth or peak-peak seal has a crucial influence
on its effectiveness. The steam passes through sealing shells that seal off against
internal excess pressure from the inside to the outside. Through the slits in the
sealing shell body, leaking steam is sucked out of the shell after the inner
area. A small amount of steam passes through the middle area into the
subsequent collecting space and, from there, through the opening in the
top shell and the connected vapour line into the atmosphere. Sealing shells that are
intended to ensure a partial vacuum in the turbine casing must prevent the ingress of
ambient air into the casing. This is why sealing steam with a slight excess pressure is
passed through the slits in the sealing shell body. The sealing steam splits into two
portions.corresponding to the larger pressure gradient, the main portion flows
towards the inside, while a lesser portion passes through the middle area
into the steam collecting space and further through the vapour line into
the atmosphere. If required, steaming of the sealing shell can be adjusted
according to the quantity of emerging vapour steam.
Control stage
The control stage comprises nozzles and moving blades. The nozzles in the
horizontally split inlet casing are milled in one piece. They are inserted into
slots.
The moving blades of the control stage together with the blade shroud and the
straddle root are milled in one piece.
The straddle roots are inserted into slots of the control stage disk of the turbine
rotor and are secured by means of taper pins.
Drum blading
For the drum blading of the turbine, a distinction is made between moving
and guide blades.
The moving blades of the drum blading together with the inverted t-root and
the blade shroud are milled in one piece. The inverted t-roots are inserted in
slots in the turbine rotor and are caulked from below using sectional material
of brass. The form of the blade roots is such that the contiguously arranged
blades have the specified throat openings. The insertion opening of the blade
groove is closed by a locking blade per row. These blades are secured to the
turbine rotor by means of stud screws. Consequently, there is thus neither a
gap in the blade ring nor a spacing deviation.
Blade carrier

The blade carrier accommodates the fixed blades of the turbine blading.
The blade carriers are axially split and are bolted together steam tight by partial
area screws. In the axial direction, the blade carriers are held in the outer
casing by a slot-web connection.

Vertical support is provided via adjustment elements that are screwed into the
pads of the blade carrier bottom. Radial mounting and guidance are ensured
by an axial bolt guide in the bottom of the blade carrier and the outer casing.

The guide blades are manufactured from extruded rod stock. They have a
hook-type root and are held apart at the specified pitch by means of milled
spacers inserted into the blade groove. The spacers are secured by means
of taper pins at the joint planes of the guide blade carrier. The shrouds are
riveted to the guide blades. They connect a number of guide blades to
form a set of blades
Blading

The thermal energy of the steam is converted into mechanical energy in the
blading of the turbine. The efficiency and the operational reliability of the turbine
are crucially dependent on the design and quality of the blading. Stringent
demands are consequently made on the design and manufacture of the
turbine blades.
Three different types of blades are employed for the blading:
Nozzle and impulse section profiles for the partially admitted control
stage with nozzle group control;
The reaction stage with 50% reaction for the full-admission drum stage as
well as throttle-controlled turbines which have no control stage.
All the blade rows are designed with shroud.
Stainless Cr steel is employed exclusively for the entire blading
Drum blading
The guide blades are manufactured from extruded rod stock. They have a
hook-type root and are held apart at the specified pitch in the slot by means of
milled spacers inserted into the blade groove. The spacers are secured by
means of taper pins at the joint planes of the guide blade carrier.
The shrouds are riveted to the guide blades. They join a number of guide blades
to form sets of blades.
The moving blades of the drum blading together with the inverted t-root and
the blade shroud are milled in one piece. The inverted t-roots are inserted in
slots in the turbine rotor and are caulked from below using sectional material
of brass. The form of the blade roots is such that the contiguously arranged
blades have the specified throat openings. The insertion opening of the blade
groove is closed by a locking blade per row. These blades are secured to the
turbine rotor by means of stud screws. Consequently, there is thus neither a
gap in the blade ring nor a spacing deviation.
Guide blades with inverted t-roots and integral milled shroud
Sealing of the radial blade gap

The radial free clearance between the guide and moving blades fitted with
shrouds is of the order of millimeters. Contact between the stationary and
moving parts over a large area, e.g. on deflection of the turbine rotor or of the
casing, is thus obviated. This large radial gap is sealed by means of seal strips
in order to reduce the tip clearance losses to a minimum.

In the case of the guide blades, the seal strips are caulked into the turbine
rotor, and, in the case of the moving blades, into the guide blade carrier. The
thin seal strips leave a clearance of a few tenths of a millimeter between the
shroud and the turbine rotor on the one hand and between the shroud and the
guide blade carrier, on the other hand.

The gauge of the seal strips of rustproof Cr steel is such that the pressure
differences occurring can be taken up. The heat developed on rubbing is so low
that no dangerous deformation of the turbine rotor or of the guide blade carrier
can occur. The seal strips are replaceable
STEAM DRAINAGE DIAGRAM
MONITORING PARAMETERS
SPECIFIC STEAM CONSUMPTION
EFFICIENCY
EXERGY
POWER COST
RELATIVE EXPANSION
WHEEL SPACE TEMPERATURE
CASING TEMPERATURE
AXIAL DISPLACEMENT
EXHAUST PRESSURE /TEMPERATURE
BEARING TEMPERATURE/VIBRATIONS
SAFETY PROTECTIONS

MECHANICAL OVERSPEED TRIP


OVERSPEED SENSOR TRIP
HIGH WHEEL SPACE TEMPERATURE
HIGH BEARING TEMPERATURES
EXHAUST PRESSURE TRIP
LUBE OIL FLOW
STEAM TEMPERATURE /PRESSURES
MOVING BLADE
MOVING BLADES WITH SHROUD
LOW PRESSURE MOVING BLADES

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