Introduction To Methodology-LDR 280-HANDOUT

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College of Business Research Director and Prof. of Mgt. & Quant. Methods
Ph. D. in Business Administration (Strategic Management), 1983
Honors/Awards/Recognitions:
Recipient of the Outstanding University Researcher Award
(One of only three COB faculty who have ever received it)
Recipient of the Manahan Family Award for Teaching Excellence
Designated as a Caterpillar Faculty Scholar
Recipient of the Outstanding College of Business Researcher Award
Recipient of the Outstanding MQM Department Researcher Award
Member of Editorial Review Boards of 3 research journals
Recipient of many Outstanding Research/Best Paper Awards at various conferences
Reviewer for several other journals and national/international conferences
Published approx. 40 research articles in academic and professional journals
Published many chapters/articles in various books.
Presented more than 60 research papers in international/national conferences
and published them in the proceedings of those conferences
Extensive business consulting/management training experience
Caterpillar, Country Insurance & Financial Services, Hardees Enterprises, City of
Bloomington, Childrens Foundation, Digital Monitoring Solutions, etc.
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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
FO C US OF THE COURSE?
Meaning of Methodology???
A sub-field of epistemology which is, in turn,
a branch of philosophy (see next slide).
Methodology is concerned with:
Methods/tools of discovering the unknown and

pursuing the truth
Science of acquiring knowledge and

establishing its truth/validity
Methodology:
The Science (and art) of conducting science
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PHILOSOPHY means love of wisdom
It is the rational pursuit of the truth and nature of existence/being.

The mother discipline from which other scientific disciplines emerged.
IN THE BEGINNING, all systematic/rational searches of knowledge

and wisdom constituted philosophy, but primarily focused on:
Ontology (nature of existence/being and mans relationship to existence)
Cosmology and Astronomy (origin and structure/rational order of the universe)
Logic, Mathematics & Science (mathematical/logical analysis to understand nature)
Epistemology (nature of knowledge and methods of obtaining knowledge)
Spiritual/Theological Issues (especially in the Middle Ages)
Ethics and Government (mans conduct/morality, relationship with other
men, and forms of government and their pros and cons)
TODAY, focus of philosophy includes:

Metaphysics (understanding the nature of ultimate reality)
Epistemology (nature of knowledge, its sources, and its validity)
Ethics (perspectives on right/wrong, fairness, justice, etc.)
Logic (principles of reasoning and rational argumentation) Aristotle & Plato at the
Aesthetics (the theory of the nature of art, beauty, etc.) Academy of Athens, by
Raphael (1510), Fresco,
Vatican 4
INTRODUCTION: MANS QUEST FOR ANSWERS
Mans existential questions regarding:
The nature of his existence, his place in this world, and
the way his world works, how much control over destiny,
what is the truth, and how to go about finding out the truth.
The different means that have been employed to answer these

fundamental questions:
1. Appeal to intuition, self-evident, common sense, authority, tradition,
superstition, religious faith, majority judgment, etc.
1. Philosophy (speculative thought based on rational analysis and logical/objective

reasoning, to arrive at conclusions based on logical necessity)
2. Theology (philosophical speculations to explain/justify religious dogma as offered

by divine revelationreligion through a philosophical lens)
3. Modern Science (developing explanations of natural phenomena based on

rational and objective analysis of sensible/observational evidence)
A Historical Journey Through
The Evolution of Epistemology
The Focus of this Presentation:

To examine the historical forces that have shaped
modern mans perspectives on epistemology.
Episteme (Greek word):

Organized knowledge (science)
Epistemology (theory of knowledge, what is true

knowledge and the proper ways of getting at it)
a. The nature of knowledge (What constitutes true knowledge?)
b. Its sources and methods (How it is supposed to be acquired?)
c. Its Validity (The ways to establishing its truth?)
d. The appropriate methods for advancing science/knowledge
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A Journey Through
The Evolution of Epistemology
The Genesis of written knowledge goes back to

Mesopotamia (todays Iraq)
THE VERY BEGINNING-- Emergence of Writing & Alphabet:
Worlds first writing systems 3300 BC:
First standard alphabet 1100 BC:
Symbols to represent vowels, 750 BC
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THE VERY BEGINNINGS
Important Discoveries in Numbering Systems:
Positional notation in numbers discovered around 3500 BC

Mesopotamia (by Babylonians & Sumerians)
Base of 60
Zero not understood
The concept of 0 properly understood/used 350 BC

In Mesopotamia (by Babylonians)
Then by Greeks
0 and the decimal system, Hindus around 1200 years ago

(AD 750)
But, in Europe, not until the 1100s (when Arabic numerals were
finally adopted) through translations of the works of Khawrazmi
(Iran, 780-850). 8
History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of Epistemology Through
Philosophical, Religious, and Political Crossroads
Organized knowledge and the modern scientific methods

owe their development directly to three major knowledge
explosions in philosophy and science:
1. In Greece around 6th century BC.
2. In the Muslim World (especially by Persians/Iranians) around 8th-12th

century.
3. Began in Europe during the 16th & 17th century scientific revolution
and the 18th century enlightenment era (the age of reason).
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History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of Epistemology Through
Philosophical, Religious, and Political Crossroads
First Knowledge Explosion--The Greek Domination:

From 600 BC through the 16th century, the development
of virtually all philosophy and science was dominated (or
greatly influenced) by the work of ancient Greek
philosophers :
Raphael (1483-15 ), Academy

of Athens, Fresco, Vatican 10
History of Scientific Knowledge: Evolution of Epistemology
Through Philosophical, Religious, and Political Crossroads
Thales (625-546 BC) --Birth of Science/Philosophy:
Explanation for how the material world was constructed.

Without resorting to supernatural explanations.
Was the first to assume:
World is an ordered entity, intelligible, & explainable in terms of

one or more underlying elements.
Water--the single entity/element that underlies everything

else in the world.
His work marked the birth of science!

Soon after, other Greeks began thinking about the world in similar ways.
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Through Philosophical, Religious, and Political Crossroads
Pythagoras (570- 495 BC)A Mathematical World:
First to propose a mathematically constructed universe

intelligible in mathematical terms
Continuation of his work by other Pythagorean philosophers
Socrates (470 - 400 BC)

Mainly concerned with ethics and politics.
NOT interested in scientific research, but viewed knowledge a virtue.
Believe: Just as the human person is guided by the power of his mind,
the world is also guided by a knowing power that operates the universe
in an orderly fashion based on some natural laws.
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With Plato and Aristotle, a long-standing philosophical debate
began surrounding the theory of knowledge,
centering around the following issues:
1.The nature of existence. Plato & Aristotle in

Academy of Athens,
Raphael, Fresco, Vatican
a. Objects exist independent of our mind and perception
(materialism), vs
b. Material objects exist only because we perceive them (idealism).
2.The nature of reality. What is real? What constitutes primary reality?

a. The material things of the experiencible phenomenal world as they appear to
our senses (e.g., beautiful things, or various individual cats)Realism
vs
a. The transcendent, changeless, perfect prototypes of worldly entities of the
noumenal world (Platos Idea/Forms/Universals) as they actually are beyond
our mind/senses (e.g., beauty, or what it is to be a cat)Idealism
That is, the question of whether there is a duality/distinction between:

The noumenal world: The real world of perfect Platonic entities (Ideas/Forms);
the world as it actually is, and
The phenomenal world: The experiencible world of imperfect material objects

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(particulars); the world as it appears to our senses. (Continued)
Plato & Aristotle in
3. The nature of knowledge. What constitutes Academy of Athens,
true knowledge? Raphael, Fresco, Vatican
a. Does knowledge pertains to understanding of the experiencible

material objects of the natural world (i.e., Particulars)? Or
b. Does it pertain to understanding of the intelligible, transcendent,

changeless entities/concepts of the noumenal world (i.e., Universals)
4. The Source of knowledge.
a. Knowledge is a priori (inborn/innate). That is, it is already planted in the

mind prior to our birth and, thus, we only have to uncover it (Rationalism).
b. We are born with a blank slate (tabula rasa) and, thus, knowledge is only
attainable through interaction with the material world--through experience
and sense perception (Empiricism)
5. Method of acquiring knowledge.
a. Should knowledge be acquired intellectually through contemplation,

reasoning, and logical analysis in the mind (Rationalism)? Or
b. Should it be acquired experientially through careful observation, 14

experimentation, and sense perception (Empiricism)?
Platos (427-347 BC)
1. A philosophical idealist and rationalist Academy of Athens,
2. Intuitive and spiritual Raphael, Fresco, Vatican
3. God being perfect architected/arranged/designed a perfect world.

4. So, the entities of this real noumenal world must be perfect/changeless.
Plato calls these perfect prototypes (transcendent/ideal entities)Ideas/Forms.

Characteristics created by God, in which material beings/objects partake.
Examples: Cat (or universal catness) vs this or that particular cat,
virtue vs virtuous individuals, beauty vs beautiful objects,, etc.
4. But, observable objects (particulars) of the experiencible phenomenal world are NOT
perfect (since many of each exist, & multiplicity rules out perfection).
So, they must not have primary reality and must be just illusory/shadowy imperfect
reflections/copies of the real thing (i.e., Ideas/Forms).
This is why the experience-based understanding of these material things (particulars)
is unreliable and subject to disagreement.
5. As such, such an understanding amounts to mere OPINIONS.

OPINION is just assumptions about reality based on appearances.
6. TRUE KNOLEDGE, being certain and infallible (there is only one truth),
must pertain to the perfect reality represented by Ideas/Forms. 15
Therefore, real knowledge involves concepts/definitions, NOT objects.
7. Since true knowledge CANNT be learned through interacting with/ experiencing the
material world (phenomenal world), then, it:
Plato
a. must be (like in mathematics) deduced intuitively/intellectually (427 BC - 347 B C )
through contemplation and intellectual reasoning in the mind.
Where we are NOT hand-strung by physical/perceptual limitations.
b. Must be brought to us from an earlier existence (it is inborn/a priori).

Implications?
We must have an immortal soul that carries our a-priori Knowledge from an
earlier existence to our current one.
The soul is exposed to reality before entering the body, but that knowledge is
blunted/blurred as soul transmigrates into new corruptible bodies .
Thus, obtaining knowledge involves rediscover what had been already known.
Platos belief in immortality and transmigration of the soul shaped much of
his philosophical dualism regarding body vs. soul, reality vs appearance,
knowledge vs opinion, ideas vs sensible objects.
8. In short, Plato was prejudiced against studying the observable/material world
Saw reality as being intelligible; not sensible.
Saw knowledge as pertaining to abstract concepts, NOT sensible objects.
9. He dismissed validity of the senses, and the role of observations,

in understanding the real world and in advancing true knowledge. 16
Aristotle (384 322 BC)
1.Rational (based on logical necessity) & Naturalistic (Note his hand)
2.Stressed validity of the senses

Recognizes importance of observation preceding deduction
3.Introduced categories Academy of Athens,
Raphael, Fresco,
10 characteristics (categories) for identifying, categorizing, and understanding Vatican
entities:
substance, quantity, quality, relation, place, time, position, state,
action, and affection
4.Substance (i.e., matter) and its independent existence

All other characteristics (including Platos Ideas) exist through a substance (i.e.,
through concrete particulars--e.g., beauty through a beautiful object).
5.Substance (concrete particulars) represent the primary reality.

Basis for KNOWLEDGE (in order to understand Idea/Forms, you
need to observe concrete particulars)
CONCLUSION: Understanding the natural world constitutes

valid knowledge, and can be attained through sense perception
and observation of particulars.
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Aristotle (Continued):
It is through the ability to reason & to articulate that man
translates observations (sense experiences) into useful knowledge.
To avoid confusion/sophistry/fallcious discourse, reasoning

must be logical and follow strict and proper rules. Aristotle (384-322 BC)
Raphael, Fresco, Vatican
So, he developed the science of logicthe rules of scientific
thinking/reasoning known as Aristotelian syllogism:
A formal system of logical argumentation based on the premise

that every truth followed logically from other truths, and that
you could not miss a step by jumping from truth A to truth C.
a. Start with self-evident axioms (simple & obviously true statements).
b. Combine them using rules of logic to arrive at theorems (proven

propositions) which are then used in combination with other axioms and
theorems to arrive at new theorems.
For example, one simple form of such deductive process consists of two
premises (axioms) and a conclusion (theorem):
(i) Every person is a mortal. (Major Premise)
(ii) Every Greek is a person. (Minor Premise)
(iii) Every Greek is mortal. (Conclusion)
Centuries later, used as the basis for the development of first the
Islamic and, 2-3 centuries later, Christian Scholastic Theology. ? ? ? 18
Scholastic Theology: Using Aristotles philosophy and system of logic as a

means to develop rational explanations for religious dogma .
Before the scholastic movement, early Christianitys Augustinian

theology had been built on the more spiritual Platonic philosophy
Thus, stressed primacy of the supernatural world and, thus, understanding
of the spiritual world of perfect, transcendent,
divine Platonic Ideas (the universals), discounting the
knowledge of the natural world.
Christianitys later Aristotelian perspective shifted the epistemological

focus to the primacy of the material
objects of the natural world (the particulars) and, thus, legitimized
pursuit of such secular/worldly knowledge.
How did this transition from the Augustinian-Platonic

to the Aristotelian- Scholastic theology come about?
A REVIEW OF the HISTORICAL UNDERPININGS.

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Rise of Christianity, Fall of Rome, & The Dawn of Europes Dark Ages:
Macedonians conquered Greece (338 BC)
Subsequently, Alexanders (356-323 BC) conquest of Persian Empire and

beyond ushered in the Hellenistic era.
The Intellectual center of the world gradually moved to Alexandria, Egypt.

Alexandrias specialized science/philosophy (e.g., Euclid, Archimedes, Ptolemy,
Galien, Plotinus, , Hypatia)
Romans conquered Greece (264-146 BC).
Expansion of Christianity: In AD 312, Emperor Constantine
Accepted Christianity
End of persecution of Christians.
Establishment of the Eastern Empire (Byzantium) with

Constantinople as its capital.
The persecuted quickly turn into the persecutors
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AD 395--Christianity the empires official religion.
4th - 5th cent., Christianity penetrates every aspect of the Roman state.
End of science/philosophy in the West.
The Church becomes Roman Empires leading institution.
The seed of mixing religion and politics.
The Fall of Rome:
Invasions by nomadic barbarians (Germanic tribes) in the 4th & 5th

centuries
Result: Europe breaks apart into kingdoms of various Germanic tribes
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Many blamed Christians/Christianity for undermining Romes

pagan Gods and her Greco-Roman cultural values.
St. Augustines (358-430) comes to Christianitys defense

Theology stresses the Original Sin, discounting mans worth & dignity
Converted from Manichaeism
Manichaeisms Dualism: Soul being good, and body being evil.
Augustines dualism of City of Man vs City of God :
Rome is earthly and materialistic (City of Man). So what if it fell?
City of God is spiritual & cannot be conquered.
Earthly power and glory in the City of Man are nothing compared to the glory of the
spiritual and heavenly City of God.
A call on the Christian Europe to build a Heavenly City on the ashes of fallen
of Rome. 22
Augustines theology, found an ally in the Platonic philosophy
Primacy of transcendental Forms/Ideas

Inferiority of the sensible material world vs the eternal supernatural world.
Immortality of the soul
Also influenced by Plotinus, pagan founder of Neo-Platonism

(3rd century, Alexandria, Egypt)
Amplified religious/mystic aspects of Platos philosophy
Fused Plato with eastern mysticism (illumination/emanation philosophy).
Platos highest Form Good or the One emanated everything from itself, in the
order of diminishing completeness/perfection:
First, created the nous (mind/intelligence).
Next, created the soul.
Then created nature (the world of material objects).
Then endowed nature with life and soul.
The soul, being chained to the body (a lower Form), longs to return to its original
source.
Virtue, meditation, cleansing oneself from bodily desires, and freedom from dependence on
material things can help soul ascend to reunite with the One.
So, contemplating God must be mans mission in life.
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Augustines Epistemology (inspired by Platos philosophy):
St. Augustine establishes theology as the foundation for epistemology.
Discounting the present life and physical world (i.e., City of Man).
His Theory of knowledge: Have faith in order to understand the

truth
Faith and revelation (NOT rational and autonomous human reasoning)
became the basis for a new epistemology.
The secular rationality of the Greek became irrelevant to salvation.
The natural world (City of Man) held no significance in comparison with

the spiritual reality of the City of God
Natural phenomena were subservient to divine providence
No urgency in studying/understanding it.
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The defeated Christian Europe saw the allure of the Heavenly City
and responded to St. Augustines call.
The long obsession with God
End of secular/creative thought/activity
Western Europe took its 600-year plunge into its Dark Ages.
In the Eastern Empire:

Emperor Justinian comes to power (6th century).
Active suppression of other religions
Full marriage of Church & State
Philosophy is considered corruptive; libraries are ransacked, book burned,

centers of learning closed (e.g., Academy of Athens).
Migration of many remaining philosophers/intellectuals to the
neighboring Persian Empire.
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Shortly after . . .
Birth of Islam (613 AD) & Expansion of the Islamic Empire:
Quickly expands east and west (632-750)
Swept away enormous chunks of land including land from:
Persian Empire (e.g., Iran, Mesopotamia, parts of Turkey, parts of Syria, Azerbaijan,
Caucasus, Afghanistan, parts of Pakistan)
Byzantine Empire (e.g., Palestine, Syria, Egypt, North Africa)
Spain, Sicily, and Southern Italy.
Arab conquerors were not great fans of philosophy and science.
With Roman Empire falling to barbarians & Persian Empire to Arabs, philosophy died in
most parts of the world (until mid-8 th century).
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Transition to the Golden Age of Islam:
A revolt in the mid 8th Century:

Coming to power of a new ruling clan
New capital: Baghdad (at that time, a part of Persia/Iran)
A Persian bureaucracy replacing the Arab ruling aristocracy.
By the end of the century a theologically more tolerant climate

conducive to intellectual activities emerges
The new political-theological climate leads to what is known as

The Golden Age of Islam:
The Second Knowledge Explosion
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The Second Knowledge Explosion (Mid 9th- 13th century):
i. The Golden Age of Islam and Persian Revival:
Emergence of a rational philosophical- theological movement
Adherence to liberal theological interpretations to justify

scientific/philosophical work
Establishment of House of Science/Philosophy/Wisdom

Gathering Books and scholars from all over the world to
engage in scientific & philosophical works.
Translation into Arabic of texts especially from Greek, Persian, Soryani,
Indian, and Byzantine civilizations.
Rediscovery of Aristotles works by Muslim scholars who wrote extensive

commentaries on them.
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Results of Peripatetic Muslim scholars (e.g., Farabi,

Avicenna, Razi, Khwarazmi, Biruni, Khayyam, Averroes, Al-Kindi):
a. Revival of Aristotles rational philosophy & his focus on

science of nature.
b. Development of a rational theology, reconciling faith with

reason & giving religious legitimacy for philosophical and
scientific work.
More importantly, over the next 300-400 years, production

of a wealth of new philosophical, scientific, & encyclopedic
works in:
o logic, mathematics, medicine, pharmacy, chemistry,
astronomy, mineralogy, geology, optics, music,
politics, and psychology.
o e.g., The Book of Healing, The Cannon of Medicine, etc.
Lets see some examples of such contributions 29

(Source: George Sarton, History of Science Series, Vol. I-III, 1927-1948)
Khwarazmi, Mohammad (Latin name: Algoritmi)

(Iran, 780-850)
Founder of Algebra, mathematician, astronomer, geographer, & cartographer
Developer of the first systematic solution to linear and quadratic equations
An early pioneer in spherical trigonometry.
Latin translations of his work in the 12th century introduced the Hindu decimal numeral system to Europe.
That was the origin of the current use of Arabic Numerals in the West.
Al-Kindi, Abu Yusef Ishaq (Latin name: Alkindus)

(Iraq, 801-873)
Philosopher, scientist, physician, astronomer. logician, musician, pharmacologist, psychologist,
meteorologist, and cryptologist
The first to introduce the Greek and Hellenistic philosophy to the Muslim world. But his work was
eventually eclipsed by names such as Farabi and Avicenna .
Farabi, Abu Nasr (Latin name: Alpharabius)

(Iran, 870-950)
A rationalist Aristotelian philosopher with over 100 works in philosophy, mathematics, chemistry, physics,
cosmology, logic, music theory, psychology, music therapy, political philosophy, and sociology.
The first to conduct experiments regarding existence of vacuum.
The first to address social psychology in his writings on political philosophy.
He had great influence on science and philosophy for several centuries.
He was widely regarded to be second only to Aristotle in knowledge (as is implied by his honorific
30 title of
"the Second Teacher").
Razi, Mohammad Zakariya (Latin name: Rhazes & Rasis) (Iran, 865-925)
A secular physician, chemist, and philosopher
Credited with numerous firsts in medical research and chemistry including:
Developing the distillation process (thus the word alcohol)
Discovery of numerous compounds (e.g., kerosene, and ethanol)
The first to differentiate smallpox from measles, father of pediatrics, and a pioneer in neurosurgery and ophthalmology
Biruni, Abu Rayhan (Latin name: Alberonius) (Iran, 973-1048)

Described as one of the greatest scientists of all times.
Pioneering contributions in philosophy, astronomy, epistemology, physics, mathematics, anthropology, comparative
sociology, history, geography, medicine, and psychology.
The first anthropologist, founder of indology
The first exponents of the experimental method of scientific investigation.
Al-Biruni Crater on the moon is named in his honor for his contributions to Astronomy,
Ibn Sina or Abu Ali Sina (Latin name: Avicenna) (Iran, 980-1037)
Describes as one of the greatest thinkers and medical scholars in history,
A poet and a statesman with 450 treatise on medicine, astronomy, chemistry, geology, psychology, logic, paleontology,
mathematics, and physics.
The first to: correctly document the anatomy of the human eye (& such eye afflictions as cataracts),
discover contagious and sexually transmitted diseases, introduce quarantine, describe symptoms & complications of
diabetes, and describe workings of the heart as a valve.
The first to introduce experimental medicine, randomized controlled trials, and efficacy tests.
Epistemologically, he criticizes the Aristotelian method and, in its place, developed a
"method of experimentation as a means for conducting scientific inquiry.
His The canon of Medicine, an immense 14-volume encyclopedia of medicine,
remained the standard medical text in universities throughout Europe until Latin copy of the Canon of Medicine,
1484, P.I. Nixon Medical Historical
31 Library
the end of the 18th century.
University of Texas
Khayyam, Omar
(Iran, 1048-1131)
Recognized as the author of the most important treatise on algebra before modern times.
The first to derived general geometric method for solving cubic equations and equations of higher order.
Measured the length of the solar year as 365.24219858156 days and reformed the solar calendar.
His Jalali calendar was more accurate (error = 1 day in 5000 years) than the Gregorian calendar developed 500 years
later (error = 1 day in 3300 years).
Many believe that he may have proposed a heliocentric theory well before Copernicus.
Edward FitzGerald (180983), made Khayym the most famous poet of the East in the West through his celebrated
translation of Khayym's quatrains (Rubaiyat)
Epistemologically, he supported the view that laws of nature explained all phenomena of observed life.
Averroes/Ibn Rushd (Latin name: Averroes)

(Cordoba, Spain, 1120-1198)
An Andalusan Muslim polymath and philosopher who has been described by some scholars as the founding father of
secular thought in Western Europe and "one of the spiritual fathers of Europe," where his school of philosophy,
Averroism, had a strong influence on Christian philosophers through the 16 th century.
Over 20,000 pages of works covering philosophy, logic, jurisprudence, psychology, politics, music theory, astronomy,
geography, mathematics, physics, celestial mechanics, and medicine, including a seven-volume medical encyclopedia,
known in Latin as Colliget.
Argued that one cannot suffer from smallpox twice, fully understood the function of the retina, and suggested the
existence of Parkinson's disease.
The first to define and measure force in mechanics and to introduce into physics the notion that bodies have a inherent
resistance to motion, later dubbed 'inertia' by Johannes Kepler.
Epistemology: Saw no conflict between religion and philosophy and believed in two kinds of knowledge. First, the
knowledge of truth of religion based in faith, that could not be tested. Second. the knowledge that is based in philosophy,
which is reserved for an elite few who have the intellectual capacity to understand it.
The asteroid "8318 Averroes" was named in his honor.
A movie depicting the life and times of Averroes was released in 1998, titled Destiny. 32
ii. The Demise of Science & Philosophy in the Muslim World:
1. More conservative rulers in Baghdad who supported the agenda of

fundamentalist clerics
2. Emergence of an activist traditionalist theological faction who

concocted a theology that used Aristotelian deductive logic to confirm
orthodox religious dogma and combat secular philosophy.
Net Results:
a. Denying any role for human reason/discretion in interpreting
theological edicts
b. A complete ban on all secular philosophical/scientific

endeavors
33
3. By the 10th century, virtually all philosophical & scientific activity had
migrated to Iran (in the east) and Spain (in the west) where it
flourished for another 200 years or so.
4. Invasions of both, the Islamic and Byzantine empires by Turkish tribes

of Central Asia.
Turks conquered Iran and Asia minor, enforcing conservative religious policies.
Influence of Ghazali, a brilliant Iranian philosopher (who turned to conservative
theology/mysticism).
5. Attacks by Mongol (1218) and Tatar (1370) herds
Genghiz Khan & Tamerlane
34
35
36
EUROPES AWAKENING & TURNING POINT--THE NEW MILLENIUM:
New hope and optimism: surviving the millennium and the apocalyptic
dooms day prophecy
Agricultural innovations and economic boom of 11th century:
a) Renewed confidence in the capacity of human intelligence

b) Surplus agricultural products and trade
c) Enormous rise in education among clergy
Rise of Gothic Churches
Rediscovery & revival of secular Roman Law and its incorporation into
canon law
The Crusades and exposure to the philosophical work of the Muslim
scholars
EMERGENCE OF WESTERN/CHRISTIAN SCHOLASTICISM:

Translations of philosophical and scientific works of Muslim scholars and
Greek Classics from Arabic to Latin
Spread of above Latin translations in Europe and development of 37

Christianitys Scholastic Theology.
Popularity of Scholasticism & emergence of church-sponsored universities

--the spread of learning/literacy to people outside of the church
Establishment of Inquisition (1184) to combat many emerging

heresies prompted by popularity of/curiosity in religious doctrine.
Creation and educational rivalry of the two leading orders of friars

(1200s)
The Platonist Franciscans and Aristotelian Dominicans
Western Scholasticism & Schoolmen:
A movement to reconcile faith/religion with reason/philosophy.
Began in the 12th century

Peaked with Thomas Aquinas (13th century).
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Early scholasticism (12th century)emphasis on the rules of logical

discourse and confidence in the power of human intelligence
Used Aristotelian logic and dialectics/ disputation as the means to develop

rational explanations/justification for the teachings of the scripture (used
reasoning to defend articles of faith).
Later, Thomas Aquinas added Aristotles naturalistic philosophy

(interest in the working of nature) and justified pursuit of worldly
knowledge as a means to appreciate God and his creation.
Thus, instigated a departure from the anti-physical, world-denying,

Augustinian-Platonic thinking that had dominated earlier Christian
theology.
St. THOMAS AQUINAS (1224-1274): A Dominican Priest and

Christianitys greatest scholastic theologian
Deeply influenced by Muslim philosophy, especially
earlier works of two Persian schoolmen Ghazali and Avicenna.
39
Aquinas converted Aristotle to Christianity, and Christianity to

Aristotelian values.
OUTCOME: For the next 300 years, Aristotle & the Scripture
became the main sources of answer to virtually all questions,
worldly and divine.
Thomas Aquinas Epistemology:

Aquinas, was a philosophical realist for whom sensible things in the world
(i.e., Particulars):
Had a substantial reality of their own
Were NOT unreal shadowy replications of Platonic Ideas.
He saw no conflict between the natural and spiritual worlds.
40
He argued. . .
a. Similarly, intelligence is the greatest gift to man from God
b. The natural world, having been created by God, is worthy of

observation/understanding in its own right
c. So, using ones god-given intellect to study Gods handiwork

(natural world) is indeed an honorable human endeavor.
d. Thus, faith and knowledge enriched one another

Faith is not in opposition to knowledge
With the above argument, Aquinas provided religious legitimacy for

the pursuit of worldly knowledge.
RESULT: A surge of intellectual activity (1200s-1300s)
41
Secularization of Philosophy and Science14th Century:

Proliferation of scholastic works and irreconcilable conflicts between some
philosophical reasons with Christian doctrine.
Two centuries earlier, Averroes (a prominent Muslim philosopher)

had proposed a doctrine of double-truth universe.
That perhaps the realm of reason is outside the sphere of theology

(the two are mutually exclusive).
Strong appeal and following of Averroism among many 14th century

Christian Scholastics, notably William of Ockham (Occam).
A Franciscan friar, and best and most notable scholastics after Aquinas
Best known for a principle called Occams Razor?
Nature loves simplicity.
42
Ockhams Epistemology & Secularization of Science/philosophy
William of Ockham--a philosophical Nominalist:

Only the particulars (concrete individual beings) are real and exist.
The Platonic Forms/Universals are just names/conceptual fictions that

exist only in the human mind.
Platos Cat (Catness) is NOT a distinct real entity.
Rather, Cat (Catness) is just a term referring to a shared

similarity among many individual cats.
Knowledge/science only pertains to sensible things

And, sensible things are individuals (particulars).
There are only two ways for acquiring knowledge about this world:
a. Through self-evident logical propositions (like in mathematical)

43
or
b. Through sensory observation of concrete particulars.
Ockham stressed:
There is no obligatory connections between Gods freely created universe
and mans desire for a perfect rational world.
Mixing the two constitutes imposing mans mental limitations onto God
God has absolute freedom to create anything in anyway he pleased.
Including imperfect particulars of the natural world
Man is given two distinct realities, each with its own separate logic:
The reality of God, given by revelation, and

The reality of the nature/empirical world, as experienced by man.
Empirical and rational analyses are the right methodologies for

understanding the worldly phenomena
An, this type of understanding constitutes true knowledge 44

45
The Trend Toward Expansion of Secularization (Decline of Church Influence):
Challenges to Political Power of the Pope
The Black Plague (1347-1352)
1) Transition to rag paper
2) Empowerment of people with greater role in religion
3) Weakening of the feudal economic system, emergence of an

urban merchant class.
The Great Schism (1377-1417) and Decline of Papacys Moral Authority:
46
The Broadening of the Secularization Trend:
Rebirth of Humanism (1300s)???
a. Initially focused on knowledge of the Greco-Roman literary classics
Secular writings dealing with the lives of ordinary people
b. Later developed into the works of socio-political humanists

of the 1500s
Reclaiming the dignity of man and his relevance/importance in worldly human

affairs
Man, by virtue of his rationality, did not need to be shepherded all the time.
No conflict between piety and wanting to grow/develop, live a good life, pursue
success, appreciate beauty, live in a just society, etc.
47
The 1400s:
Invention of the printing press
Fall of Constantinople, Creation of Ottoman Empire, & Migration of Greeks

to Western Europe
Donation of Constantine proven a Forgery
Rise of Nationalism and Modern Nation-States
Voyages of Discovery
48
The Arrival of Renaissance (Mid 1400s) and Birth of Modernity:

A synthesis of the above philosophical, theological, political, social, and
economic forces/changes, culminated in:
1. The Italian Renaissance 2. Reformation

3. Scientific Revolution 4. THE Third Knowledge Explosion
The Renaissance started in Italys independent city-states
What does the word Renaissance mean? Why is it called that?
Initially about the rebirth of the classical culture
But also became about celebrating the individual.
Renaissance embraced and celebrated Humanist values of youth, beauty,

success, & wealth.
49
Renaissance Transformed Artistic & Intellectual Expressions:

Renaissance quickly became the age of intellectual & artistic creativity.
Art & literature began to reflect the fact that Man was once again claiming
the center stage in human affairs.
Pushing religion increasingly into the background.
Machiavelli put forth a secular political philosophy.
Renaissance transformed the Papacy into a virtually secular institution.
This greatly contributed to a backlash against the Papacy.
Renaissance petered out in Italy, and gradually moves to Europes northern

states:
a.Reformation
b.Sack of Rome
c.Counter-Reformation, Revival of Inquisition, and suppression of free thought.
50
Reformation (1517) of Martin Luther (German, 1517),

John Calvin (French, 1536 ), & John Knox (Scottish, 1559)
What was it about?
A revolt against the authority of the Catholic church

Rejection of the infallibility of the Pope
Criticism of the Papacy for its practices (e.g., selling indulgences)
Stressing personal spirituality
RESULT: Emergence of a new culture of spiritual independence/

individualism in religious discourse, which gradually spilled over into a
quest for self-determination & independence in intellectual as well as
socio-economic-political affairs.
It inspired:
a. 17th century scientific revolution
b. 17th -18th democratic revolutions (English, American, French)
c. 17th 18th century free-market economic revolution.
51
Epistemologically, Luther was a nominalist .
Nominalism: Platonic Forms are NOT real entities. They are simply conceptual
fictions that are abstracted in the human mind based on empirical observation.
Realm of science only includes observable material objects, i.e.,
Particulars.
Luther, like Ockham, believed in the separation of realm of reason from sphere
of faith.
Protestantism became a force favoring secularization of philosophy/science
Creation of Independent Country Churches
Western Christianity no longer exclusively Catholic

Monarchs more powerful at the expense of both, the Pope & emperor
Catholic/Spanish Counter Reformation: Internal reforms initiated by the

Church to stop the spread of Protestantism.
educational work of the Jesuits.

52
Counter Reformation and Jesuit Education: To educate and create a new

Catholic elite, the Society of Jesus (Jesuits) was founded in 1534.
Fused the reformed Catholicism with the best of the educational tradition from
the Renaissance.
Established schools all over Europe.
Exposed students to many works with classical, humanist, liberal, and pluralist
viewpoints.
Trained a new generation of notable scientists and thinker (e.g., Galileo,

Descartes, Voltaire, and Diderot).
53
Scientific Revolution and the Evolution of the Philosophy of Science
The Third Knowledge Explosion & The Scientific Revolution:
Discoveries in Astronomy kicked off a full-fledged scientific revolution.
Copernicus work rejected the complex

Geocentric Universe of Aristotle & Ptolemy
(i.e., Earth being the stationary center of
the Universe)
And, in its place, proposed a much simpler

Heliocentric vision of the universe.
NOTE: Copernicus (like Ptolemy) erroneously assumed planets orbits to be perfect circles.
Keplers 3 laws of planetary motion later proved that the orbit of every planet
is an ellipse (oval) with the Sun at a focus.
Scientific Revolution and the Evolution of the Philosophy of Science
The Copernican model was corroborated by Galileo & Kepler and, thus,
established an indisputable Heliocentric vision for the Universe.
Their work led, eventually, to Newtons General Laws of Motion and Gravity
and emergence of the modern physics.
Profound implications of the above works?
a. Dispelled the Aristotelian notion of infallibility/constancy of the heavens.
b. Undermined the special status of Man (as the crown jewel of creation)
and Earth (as center of the universe).
c. Disproved Platos & Aristotles metaphysics attributing movement of living

things to their soul.
And, by extension, attributing the unending circular movement of the

planets to an eternal Unmoved Mover.
d. Realization: Universe had a secular, mechanistic nature and

science was an impersonal way of studying the natural world.
55
Scientific Revolution and the Evolution of Philosophy of Science
Shortly after, a full-fledged Scientific Revolution was brought about by 16th
& 17th century philosophers who:
a. Believed that nature is profoundly lawful, and its laws are intelligible.
b. Believed the causes of natural phenomena are impersonal and physical.
a. Called for removing all supernatural forces from explanation of worldly events.
c. Called for abandoning the Aristotelian scholastic method.
d. Dismissed the value of knowledge derived from faith, authority, and intuition.
They advocated the use of the human capacity to think, and to learn from
experience, as the chief criteria for distinguishing fact vs fiction, true vs false,
reality vs fallacy, right vs wrong, real vs imagined, etc.
Descartes (father of modern philosophy) stressed the need to rid the mind of all
preconceptions. He declared:
Everything must be doubted.
accept nothing as true until it was established beyond doubt.
The spirit of the new philosophy and epistemology is summed-up in the

quote from Descartes: I think, therefore I am.
56
So, the epistemological journey from St. Augustine t(5TH century):

Believe and you will understand.
to Descartes (17th century): Everything must be doubted. was a
1200 year philosophical, theological, and political evolution.
Two Competing Schools of Thought:
1. Rationalists believed that:

Laws connecting fundamental elements of the universe are self-evident.
Man has innate/inborn ideas about etched in his mind before birth.
So, knowledge is acquired through logical analysis of these innate ideas.
Deductively applying basic principles of logic and systematic/rational

reasoning, like the axioms of geometry, is the best way to derive knowledge
in all scientific disciplines.
Rene Descartes Baruch de Spinoza 57

Gottfried Leibniz
Descartes became the first to present a view of the world that was
different from the Aristotelian-Christian outlook.
The world as an impersonal mechanical machine in perpetual motion

following mathematical rules.
A break with the tradition that saw nature as having motives and feelings of
love and hate.
The Aristotelian deductive method implied that the natural world can only
be described in general terms.
Nature is too subtle to lend itself to exact description and, thus, its details
always elude precise analysis.
Descartes saw nature as a mathematical mechanism, which can be

described with exact and logical formulas.
He advocated breaking problems into pieces and methodically examining

them, from the simplest through the most complex.
Descartes rationalism conquered France, but not England, where

the scientific outlook was shaped by empiricists like Francis Bacon
and
2. Empiricists believed that any claims to understanding a phenomenon

must be measured against the empirical reality of concrete particulars.
Discounted the deductive method. Francis Bacon called it a dead end

Galileo stated: Does Aristotle not declare that what sensible experience shows ought to
be preferred over any deductive argument, even one that seems extremely well
founded?
Empiricists called for a new science grounded in inductive principles.
Uncovering secrets of nature through empirical observation/experimentation and

judicious interpretation of the results.
That is, careful examination of shared patterns and regularities

(e.g., similarities, differences) in multiple occurrences/observations
of a phenomenon
Sir Francis Bacon Galileo Galilei Thomas Hobbes John Locke Sir Isaac Newton David Hume John Stuart Mill
59
(1561-1626) (1564-1642) (1568-1679) (1632-1704) (1643-1727) (1711-1776) (1806-1873)
John Locke rejected the rationalist view that man comes to the world with a
priori (inborn) knowledge that he simply has to rediscover.
He maintains: The mind arrives at the world stage entirely blank and
all knowledge is to be discovered only through experience.
Traditionally, philosophy was about developing speculative, but very

holistic belief systems that presented integrative (all-embracing)
explanations for many issues.
Locke, on the other hand, called on scientists to seek less ambitious, but
empirically-grounded, thus more realistic, explanations that were more
relevant in their applications.
60
Thomas Hobbes the first to propose a materialistic theory of causality.
In the medieval mind, world was sustained by a perpetual

chain of miracles.
He saw cause-and-effect links as temporal relationships:
Every effect has a material cause, so that effects always

have their necessity in things antecedent.
He asserted that effects follow their causes by inner necessity

Their connection is inherent in the nature of the phenomenon and,
thus, transcends our experience.
Irrespective of whether we can perceive those connections.
That is, an effect has to follow its cause by natural necessity

(it is in its nature).
61
David Hume (18th Century Scottish Philosopher)
Challenged Hobbes doctrine of causality.
Asserted: Cause and effect are NOT connected by logical necessity
Such connections (as we perceive them) do NOT reflect

a necessity in nature.
Rather, they are merely expected as a result of our experience and habit.
The sequence from cause A to effect B seems necessary to us only

because repetitions of A being followed by B become a familiar pattern to
us, so we get used to expecting B to follow when we observe A.
The apparent necessity exist in our minds, not in nature.
HIS CONCLUSION: Empirical evidence/knowledge DOES NOT really give

us any insight into the real inner workings of nature.
62
Immanuel Kant (18th Century Idealist German Philosopher)
His epistemologically, bridged the gap between Rationalists and

Empiricists and, thus, todays scientific enterprise can be described as
logico-empirical.
Like Plato, believed in the duality of Noumenal vs Phenomenal world.
There is a reality which is independent of mans perceptions

and is NOT experientially knowable (a thing-in-itself).
Implication: it is impossible to have any empirical knowledge

of the supernatural world.
Like Aristotle, believed that the natural (phenomenal) world is knowable.

And, it is knowable through observation/sense perception.
Thus, scientific knowledge pertains only to the natural/perceptible world.

Events and objects that are in time and space.
But, man is NOT simply a passive bystander in receiving impressions from

the outside world. 63
Our mind helps give meaning to our observations/experiences.
HOW does it do that?
Central to the workings of nature are some rational inner necessities to

which all empirical observations must conform .
That is, without which natural phenomena will not work
(e.g., mathematical relationships and necessities of time and space

such as implausibility of travelling back in time, being in two places
at the same time, mutually exclusive propositions, or being and
not being at the same time.)
We are born with an innate/a priori rational framework/knowledge that

help us:
a. Understand the above inner necessities of the natural world, and
b. Thus, help us interpret our experiences and give accurate meaning

to our empirical knowledge.
64
In short, according to Kant:

What is known is, in part, imposed by the knower.
The knower plays an active and creative role in the knowing process
(i.e., partly enacts his/her known reality), through operations of the mind.
CONCLUSION: Since knowledge results from the interaction between the

knower and the known, the rational mind of the knower must be given a
role in the process of undertaking scientific investigations.
Result of Kants influence: Scientific method must be an

interactive process that rests on the interplay of both:
a. The new inductive empiricism (i.e., observation/experimentation), &
b. The old deductive reasoning (i.e., rational analysis/inquiry)
In short, if science is to be both realistic & orderly, scientific

explanations must be supported by sound empirical evidence,
but also by rational/reasoned analysis.
Key characteristics of the modern scientific method: 65

CHARCTERISTICS OF THE METHOD OF SCIENCE
Empiricism
Science is NOT a belief system; scientific explanations must be anchored in reality, NOT just in
beliefs/intuition/common sense/casual subjective judgment. That is:
Propositions must appeal to evidence, and not just to beliefs or even reason.
Newtons 4th rule of reason in science states:

We are to look upon propositions inferred by general induction from phenomenon as
accurately or very true, . . . till such time as other phenomena occur, by which they may
either be made more accurate, or liable to exceptions.
John Stuart Mill argues that:

The only grounds that we have for inferring from a sample to a population, or from the
past to the future, are given by present experience or memory.
Francis Bacon who was an advocate for a worldly utilitarian science argued:
The only knowledge of importance to man is knowledge that is rooted in the
natural/physical world (which can be experienced in time and space).
o As opposed to the meta-physical/supernatural phenomena that

pertain to (are in the realm of) forces beyond this world
66
Empiricism in social/behavioral sciences:
Result of pioneering works of:
Auguste Comte , the founder of Positivism in social sciences:
Positivists believe that scientific research should NOT be compelled
to start with a deductive theory-building process.
Maintained that the goal of knowledge is simply to describe the

phenomenon experienced, and NOT necessarily to justify it.
That is, scientific knowledge must receive its positive affirmation from
data/evidence and does not have to be rationally justifiable.
Maintained that untestable/unverifiable metaphysical propositions are

without meaning; are not scientific.
Sought to apply observation and experimentation to what we today

know as sociology.
Galton developed a mathematical formula for measuring correlations,

thereby facilitating empiricism in behavioral/social sciences that do not
easily lend themselves to experimentation.
Also was the inventor of fingerprinting, & cousin of Charles Darwin.
67
Testability
Propositions must be testable/verifiable against observed evidence.
Science is not a belief system; it seeks objective knowledge

about natural phenomena (i.e., phenomena that are observable/ testable
in space and time.)
As such: If NOT testable, then NOT scientific
Speculative propositions/explanations that delve into the supernatural

(issues beyond this world) have no place
in science.
They are metaphysical speculations about abstract supernatural

ideas that cannot be measured, quantified, tested,
confirmed/disconfirmed by observation.
Therefore, they remain in the realm of pure thought.

68
Rigor & Regulated Methodology
It is NOT a belief system. It is a deliberate and disciplined intellectual process
based on carefully planned observations, that is:
What is observed, how many times, and how are all carefully decided.
Quantification of variables, precise measurement using

instruments/procedures that enhance the range of ones senses,
mathematical/statistical analysis methods, and use of probability theory in
inferences are all aimed at providing clarity/precision and minimizing
vagueness.
Precise Language/Rhetoric
People understand words in slightly different ways .
This can lead to distortions and flaws in knowledge.
Thus, scientists prefer to communicate in an exact and universal language,

such as mathematics/statistics.
The standard of writing scientific works in clear/simple and straightforward language

was also established by the founding members of the Royal Society shortly after it
was officially established in 1660.
69
Assumption of Determinism
70
3. Modern/Scientific Outlook (A Deterministic Perspective):
There is order in nature and the world around us does NOT operate
randomly/accidentally.
Baruch Spinoza: Everything that happens occurs through the operation
of NECESSITY,?
Everything must necessarily happen the way that it does.

Every object/phenomenon has explainable causes
inherent in the nature of that object/phenomenon.
Nature is lawful and all phenomenon is governed by logical and

intelligible LAWS OF NATURE.
Human intellect and judgment is capable of discovering natures order.
CONCLUSION: We are not at the mercy of nature.

By discovering the laws of nature, we find mastery
over our world and control over our destiny.
As Francis Bacon stated: The universe must be viewed as a problem to be solved

71 ,
rather than as an eternally fixed stage, upon which man walked.
Scientific Determinism is NOT exact, but statistical/probabilistic.
As John Locke maintains:

It is often NOT possible to establish knowledge/truth with absolute certainty.
Thus, truth is a function of the strength of the supporting reason/evidence.
Therefore, the degree of assent that we give to a proposition should depend
on the grounds of probability in its favor.
72
Tentativeness
Unlike religion, science is not a belief system.
Science does NOT subscribe to certitude and absolutism.
Scientific findings are NOT to be considered final/complete.
Human knowledge is relative and fallible; must be constantly revised

in light of new evidence.
Kant had stressed the minds active role in giving meaning to

human experiences/observations.
Karl Popper took the argument to its logical conclusion:

Science CANNOT produce knowledge that is certain or absolute.
Corroborating data CANNOT confirm a theory since there may always be

other plausible explanations that trump the current theory.
Popper states:
Corroboration gives only the comfort that the theory has been tested and survived
the test, that even after the most impressive corroborations of predictions, it has
only achieved the status of not yet disconfirmed.
In other words, "not proven false" is not the same as "being true. 73
Popper, therefore, maintains that:

"The only process available for establishing a scientific theory
is one of eliminating plausible rival hypotheses.
As such, scientific enterprise should be . . .:
. . . a continuous attempt to falsify prevailing theories.
By ruling out competing plausible explanations, one continues to

learn more about a subject and get increasingly closer to the
truth.
Thus, even undisputable explanations, those highly corroborated

by empirical evidence (e.g., Gravity Theory, Theory of Evolution,
etc.), are still referred to as a THEORY
.
74
Falsifiability
Investigations must start WITHOUT any pre-suppositions /belief
regarding the truth/falsity of the proposition/explanation.
Propositions must not only have the potential to be verified, but also the
potential to be falsified/refuted.
Science is an honest attempt to seek answers that we dont have.
In science, it is the evidence that is supposed to lead us to our conclusions,

whatever those conclusions may be.
Ideologically-charged propositions/assumptions pursue questions for which
answers are already given/assumed.
Dogmatic ideologies dont tolerate rejection of their assumptions/beliefs.
Thus, whenever we believe answers/explanations are:

a. known (i.e., complete and final vs tentative), and/or
b. externally fixed (i.e., are absolute and not refutable),
the question being considered will NOT be a scientific one.

Example: Intelligent Design/Creationism vs. Evolution
In Short: If NOT testable, tentative, or refutable, then NOT scientific

75
Parsimony
Is based on the notion that the elegance, beauty , and harmony
of nature emanates from its simplicity.
This principle was originally expressed by William of Ockham and, thus,

is known as the Occams/Ockhams Razor. It stated:
What can be done with fewer is done in vain with more.
Copernicus applied the principle in proposing his heliocentric model of universe.
Kepler repeatedly writes: Nature loves simplicity.
Newtons single law of gravitation holding each planet to the sun represents this simplicity.
Newtons first rule of reasoning in Science is a restatement

of Occams Razor:
Nature does nothing in vain , and more is in vain when
less will serve; for nature is pleased with simplicity,
and affects not the pomp of superfluous causes.
Therefore, theories and explanations of natural phenomena should not

be made more complicated than necessary (frugality/succinctness).
This means, what is superfluous and unnecessary in the intellectual

judgment of the scientist should be cut away.
That is, if you have two competing theories for explaining the observed facts,
the simplest one (i.e., the one with fewer assumptions) should be used
until more evidence comes along.
76
NOTE: Method of science is often (especially in more mature

stage of a fields) based on the Nomothetic (rather than
Idiographic)method of explaining phenomena.
Idiographic Research
Is concerned with examining and identifying many unique
considerations that lie behind a particular phenomenon/ event/action
(e.g., case studies, archival studies, historical research).
Nomothetic Research
Is aimed at discovering the relatively few, but very important,
considerations that explain a general class of events/actions.
77
Generalizability
As Newtons 2nd rule of reason in science asserts:

To the same natural effects we must, as far as possible, assign the same causes.
As to respiration in a man and in a beast, the descent of stones in Europe and in
America.
Built-in Self-Correcting Mechanisms Checks and balances that provide an objective

and fair playing field.
Public scrutiny: Public dissemination of scientific works and their independent

review by other scientists is a 17th century invention.
It was initiated by the founding members of the British Royal Society.
Replications: Ro be considered valid, scientific findings must be

reproducible/confirmable under similar conditions by other scientists.
This is why replications are encouraged.

And, this is why researchers are required to clearly, and in details, articulate all their
procedures.
78
SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE:? ? ?
Scientific knowledge is our tentative and falsifiable explanations
about natural phenomena developed on the basis of careful logical
analysis and objective examination of publically reviewable
observational evidence.
FUNCTIONS/OBJECTIVES OF SCIENCE: ? ? ?
To Describe:
Specifying what makes a phenomenon occur and how.
What are the factors contributing to its occurrence, and how?)
To Explain:
Why? What are the reasons? What are the underlying logic and
dynamics?
To Predict:
What is the likelihood of the phenomenon occurring under a given
condition? Under what conditions is a phenomenon likely to occur?)
79
What has been the contributions of this new science to our prosperity
and socio-economic and technological progress?
It is estimated that it took 12,000 years until the beginning of the century industrial
revolution, for worlds per capita GDP (in 1990 fixed dollars) to double.
By contrast, in only the 250 years between the industrial revolution and year 2000, per
capita GDP rose more than 36 folds.
Despite the worldwide population explosion from 720 millions in 1750, to 6.3 billions in 2000.
But, it is fair to ask if this material prosperity been achieved at the expense of a diminishing
quality of life?
Did the Medieval life involve greater richness, spirituality, higher general happiness, or a
higher sense of subjective wellbeing?
The answer is an emphatic NO; all the evidence points to the contrary . . .
80
QUESTIONS OR
COMMENTS
81

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1

Methodology is concerned with:

Methods/tools of discovering the unknown and

Science of acquiring knowledge and

It is the rational pursuit of the truth and nature of existence/being.

IN THE BEGINNING, all systematic/rational searches of knowledge

TODAY, focus of philosophy includes:

The different means that have been employed to answer these

1. Philosophy (speculative thought based on rational analysis and logical/objective

2. Theology (philosophical speculations to explain/justify religious dogma as offered

3. Modern Science (developing explanations of natural phenomena based on

The Focus of this Presentation:

Episteme (Greek word):

Epistemology (theory of knowledge, what is true

The Genesis of written knowledge goes back to

THE VERY BEGINNING-- Emergence of Writing & Alphabet:

Worlds first writing systems 3300 BC:

First standard alphabet 1100 BC:

Symbols to represent vowels, 750 BC

Positional notation in numbers discovered around 3500 BC

Zero not understood

The concept of 0 properly understood/used 350 BC

0 and the decimal system, Hindus around 1200 years ago

Organized knowledge and the modern scientific methods

1. In Greece around 6th century BC.

2. In the Muslim World (especially by Persians/Iranians) around 8th-12th

First Knowledge Explosion--The Greek Domination:

Raphael (1483-15 ), Academy

Thales (625-546 BC) --Birth of Science/Philosophy:

Explanation for how the material world was constructed.

Was the first to assume:

World is an ordered entity, intelligible, & explainable in terms of

Water--the single entity/element that underlies everything

His work marked the birth of science!

Pythagoras (570- 495 BC)A Mathematical World:

First to propose a mathematically constructed universe

Continuation of his work by other Pythagorean philosophers

Socrates (470 - 400 BC)

1.The nature of existence. Plato & Aristotle in

b. Material objects exist only because we perceive them (idealism).

2.The nature of reality. What is real? What constitutes primary reality?

That is, the question of whether there is a duality/distinction between:

The phenomenal world: The experiencible world of imperfect material objects

a. Does knowledge pertains to understanding of the experiencible

b. Does it pertain to understanding of the intelligible, transcendent,

4. The Source of knowledge.

a. Knowledge is a priori (inborn/innate). That is, it is already planted in the

5. Method of acquiring knowledge.

a. Should knowledge be acquired intellectually through contemplation,

b. Should it be acquired experientially through careful observation, 14

3. God being perfect architected/arranged/designed a perfect world.

Plato calls these perfect prototypes (transcendent/ideal entities)Ideas/Forms.

5. As such, such an understanding amounts to mere OPINIONS.

b. Must be brought to us from an earlier existence (it is inborn/a priori).

9. He dismissed validity of the senses, and the role of observations,

2.Stressed validity of the senses

4.Substance (i.e., matter) and its independent existence

5.Substance (concrete particulars) represent the primary reality.

CONCLUSION: Understanding the natural world constitutes

To avoid confusion/sophistry/fallcious discourse, reasoning

A formal system of logical argumentation based on the premise

a. Start with self-evident axioms (simple & obviously true statements).

b. Combine them using rules of logic to arrive at theorems (proven