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Chapter 5

GEOPHYSICS

Mechanical Wave Measurements


Electromagnetic Wave Techniques
Geophysical Methods
Mechanical Wave Measurements
Crosshole Tests (CHT)
Downhole Tests (DHT)
Spectral Analysis of Surface Waves
Seismic Refraction
Suspension Logging
Electromagnetic Wave Techniques
Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)
Electromagnetic Conductivity (EM)
Surface Resistivity (SR)
Magnetometer Surveys (MT)
Mechanical Wave Geophysics
Nondestructive measurements ( s < 10-4%)
Both borehole geophysics and non-invasive
types (conducted across surface).
Measurements of wave dispersion:
velocity, frequency, amplitude, attenuation.
Determine layering, elastic properties,
stiffness, damping, and inclusions
Four basic wave types: Compression (P),
Shear (S), Rayleigh (R), and Love (L).
Mechanical Wave Geophysics
Compression (P-) wave is fastest wave;
easy to generate.
Shear (S-) wave is second fastest wave.
Is directional and polarized. Most
fundamental wave to geotechnique.
Rayleigh (R-) or surface wave is very close
to S-wave velocity (90 to 94%). Hybrid
P-S wave at ground surface boundary.
Love (L-) wave: interface boundary effect
Mechanical Body Waves

Initial

P-wave

S-wave
Mechanical Body Waves
Amplitude
S R
Time

P
Oscilloscope

Source
Receiver (Geophone)

R S
Mechanical Waves (Compression)

P - Wave Velocities

Steel
Intact Rocks
Weathered Rocks
Ice
Till
Sand
Clay
Sea Water
Fresh Water

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000

Compression Wave Velocity, Vp (m/s)


Mechanical Waves (Shear)

S - W ave V elocities

Steel
Intact Rocks
Weathered Rocks
Ice
Till
Sand
Clay
Sea Water
Fresh Water
}V s =0

0 1000 2000 3000 4000

Shear Wave Velocity, VS (m/s)


Geophysical Equipment

Seismograph Spectrum Analyzer

Portable Analyzer Velocity Recorder


oscilloscope
Seismic Refraction
ASTM D 5777

Note: Vp1 < Vp2

Determine depth t1
to rock layer, zR t2
Vertical Geophones
Source t3
(Plate) t4

x1
x2
x3
Soil: Vp1
zR x4

Rock: Vp2
Seismic Refraction

Horizontal Soil Layer over Rock

T r a v e l T im e (s e c o n d s )
0.020
xc V p2 V p1
zc
2 V p2 V p1
0.015
1
Vp2 = 4880 m/s
0.010

xc = 15.0 m
0.005
1 Depth to Rock:
Vp1 = 1350 m/s zc = 5.65 m
0.000
t values

0 10 20 30 40 50
Distance From Source (meters)
x values
Shear Wave Velocity, Vs
Fundamental measurement in all solids
(steel, concrete, wood, soils, rocks)
Initial small-strain stiffness represented
by shear modulus: G0 = Vs2
(alias Gdyn = Gmax = G0)
Applies to all static & dynamic problems at
small strains ( s < 10-6)
Applicable to both undrained & drained
loading cases in geotechnical engineering.
Crosshole
Seismic
Testing
Equipment
Oscilloscope
Crosshole Testing
ASTM D 4428

Pump

x = fctn(z)
t from inclinometers
Paul Mayne/GT

Shear Wave Velocity:


Vs = x/t
Downhole
Hammer
(Source) Velocity
Test Transducer
Depth (Geophone
Receiver)
packer
x
Slope Slope
Note: Verticality of casing
Inclinometer Inclinometer
must be established by
slope inclinometers to correct
distances x with depth. PVC-cased PVC-cased
Borehole Borehole
Downhole Seismic
Testing Equipment
Oscilloscope
Downhole Testing
Pump
Horizontal Plank
with normal load

x Paul Mayne/GT

t Hammer
z1
z2 packer

Horizontal
Test
Depth Velocity
Interval Transducers
(Geophone
Receivers)
R12 = z12 + x2
Shear Wave Velocity:
R22 = z22 + x2
Vs = R/t Cased
Borehole
In-Situ Surface Wave Testing

Signal
Analyzer

Accelerometer

Source Sensors

Layer 1

Rayleigh Layer 2
Surface
Waves Layer 3

Layer 4
Shear Wave Measurements
Seismic Piezocone Test (SCPTu)
Seismic Piezocone Test

Obtains Four Independent


Measurements with Depth:
Hybrid of Penetrometer Vs
with Downhole Geophysics

Cone Tip Stress, qt


fs
Penetration Porewater Pressure,u
Sleeve Friction, fs
u2
Arrival Time of Downhole Shear
u1 60o

Wave, ts qc
Automated Seismic Source

Electronically-
actuated
Self-contained
Left and right
polarization
Modified beam
uses fin to enhance
shear wave
generation
Successfully
tested to depths of
20m
Capable of being
used with traditional
Downhole Shear Wave Velocity

Anchoring System
Automated Source
Polarized Wave
Downhole Vs with
excellent soil
coupling.
Complete Set of Shear Wave Trains
Mud Island Site A, Memphis TN
Sounding Memphis, Shelby County, TN

qt (MPa) fs (kPa) u2 (kPa) Vs (m/sec)


0 10 20 30 40 0 100 200 300 0 1000 2000 3000
0 100 200 300 400
0 0 0
0

5 5 5
5

10 10 10
10

15 15 15
Depth (m)

15

20 20 20 20

25 25 25 25

30 30 30 30

35 35 35 35
Seismic Flat Dilatometer (SDMT)
Seismic DMTs at UMASS, Amherst

Lift-off Pressure Expansion Pressure Travel Time of


po (bars) Shear Wave (ms)
p1 (bars)
0 2 4 6 8 0 5 10 15 0 20 40 60 80
0 0 0

SDMT1
SDMT4
2 2 2 SDMT5

4 4 4
Depth (m)

6 6 6
6 SDMT
DMT 21
DMT23
DMT
8 8 SDT 3
DMT 4 8
8
SDMT 4
SDMT 5
10 10 10
10

12 12
12 12
More Measurements is

More Better
Geophysical Methods

Electromagnetic Wave
Techniques
Electromagnetic Wave Geophysics
Nondestructive methods
Non-invasive; conducted across surface.
Measurements of electrical & magnetic
properties of the ground: resistivity
(conductivity), permittivity, dielectric,
and magnetic fields.
Cover wide spectrum in frequencies (10
Hz < f < 1022 Hz).
Electromagnetic Wave Geophysics
Surface Mapping Techniques:
Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)
Electrical Resistivity (ER) Surveys
Electromagnetic Conductivity (EM)
Magnetometer Surveys (MS)
Downhole Techniques
Resistivity probes, MIPs, RCPTu
2-d and 3-d Tomography
Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)
GPR surveys conducted on gridded areas
Pair of transmitting and receiver antennae
Short impulses of high-freq EM wave
Relative changes in dielectric properties
reflect differences in subsurface.
Depth of exploration is soil dependent (up
to 30 m in dry sands; only 3 m in wet
saturated clay)
Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)

Xadar Sensors & Software GeoRadar


Illustrative Results from Ground
Penetrating Radar (GPR)

Crossing an underground utility corridor


Illustrative Results from Ground
Penetrating Radar (GPR)
Illustrative Results of
Ground Penetrating
Radar (GPR)

Geostratigraphy
Examples of Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)

Useful in Locating Underground Utilities


Results from Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)
Results from Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)
Electrical Resisitivity Measurements
Electrical Resistivity (ER) Surveys
Resisitivity R (ohm-m) is an electrical
property. It is the reciprocal of conductivity
Arrays of electrodes used to measure changes
in potential.
Evaluate changes in soil types and variations
in pore fluids
Used to map faults, karst features (caves,
sinkholes), stratigraphy, contaminant plumes.
Electrical
Resisitivity
Measurements

What will be gained by


changing electrode
spacing?

Depth of ER survey:
i.e., greater spacing
influences deeper
Electrical Resisitivity Measurements
Electrical Resisitivity Measurements

Resistivity Values (ConeTec & GeoProbe, 1997)

Weathered Rocks

Glacial Till

Sands & Gravels

Loose Sands

Loam

Clay

1 10 100 1000 10000

Bulk Resistivity, (ohm-meters)


Electrical Resistivity
Electromagnetic Conductivity (EM)
Magnetometer Surveys (MS)

Measure relative changes


in the earths' magnetic
field across a site.
Applicability of In-Situ Tests
CLAY S SILTS SANDS GRAV ELS Cobbles/ Boulders

SPT
In-Situ Test Method

CPT

DMT

PMT

VST

Geophysics
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000

Grain Size (mm)


In-Situ Testing - Objectives
Select in-situ tests for augmenting,
supplementing, and even replacing borings.
Realize the applicability of various in-situ
methods to different soil conditions.
Recognize the complementary nature of in-
situ direct push methods with conventional
rotary drilling & sampling methods.
Recognize values for utilizing these methods
and quality implications for their underuse.
A.P. Van den Berg Track Truck

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