Operations

Management

Statistical Process Control

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Statistical Process Control
(SPC)
Statistical technique used to ensure
process is making product to standard
All process are subject to variability
Natural causes: Random variations
Assignable causes: Correctable problems
Machine wear, unskilled workers, poor
material
Objective: Identify assignable causes
Uses process control charts

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Types of Statistical Quality
Control
Statistical
Quality Control

Process Acceptance
Control Sampling

Variables Attributes
Charts Charts

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Natural and Assignable
Variation

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Central Limit Theorem
X-charts based on this theorem
Regardless of distribution of population
from which samples are taken, the
distribution of sample means will tend to
follow a normal curve
Mean of sampling distribution will equal to
mean of population,
Std deviation of sample distribution will equal
to population std dev, , divided by square root
of sample size, n

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The Relationship Between Population and
Sampling Distributions
Three population distributions
Distribution of sample means
Beta

Mean of sample means x

Normal Standard deviation of
the sample means x
n

Uniform

3 x 2 x 1 x x x 2 x 3 x
(mean)
95.5% of all x fall within 2 x

99.7% of all x fall within 3 x

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Control Chart Purposes
Show changes in data pattern
e.g., trends
Make corrections before process is out of
control
Show causes of changes in data
Assignable causes
Data outside control limits or trend in data
Natural causes
Random variations around average

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Control Chart Types

Continuous Categorical or Discrete

Numerical Data Control Numerical Data
Charts

Variables Attributes
Charts Charts

R X P C
Chart Chart Chart Chart

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X Bar Chart
Type of variables control chart
Shows sample means over time
Monitors process average
Example: Weigh samples of
coffee & compute means of
samples; Plot

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 X Bar Chart Control Limits
**When std dev, , of population or process is available

UCL x z x mean of sample means or target value set

x x z no of std dev as per confidence level
LCL x z x std dev of sample means
x x
Mean for
k sample i
xi
x i 1 No of samples
k
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X bar Chart Control Limits
**When std dev, , of population or process is not available

UCL x x A R From
Table S6.1

LCLx x A R
Mean for
k sample i
xi
x i 1
No of samples
k
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Factors for Computing Control
Chart Limits (when is not
available)
Sample Mean Upper Lower
Size, n Factor, A 2 Range, D4 Range, D3
2 1.880 3.268 0
3 1.023 2.574 0
4 0.729 2.282 0
5 0.577 2.115 0
6 0.483 2.004 0
7 0.419 1.924 0.076
8 0.373 1.864 0.136
9 0.337 1.816 0.184
10 0.308 1.777 0.223
12 0.266 1.716 0.284

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Control Chart for Samples of 9 Boxes

Variation due to
assignable causes

17=UCL
Variation due to
16=Mean
natural causes
15=LCL
Variation due to
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 assignable causes
Sample Number
Out of control

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R - Charts

Type of variables control chart

Shows sample ranges over time,
where range is the diff between
highest and lowest values in each
sample
Monitors process dispersion/variability
Example: How far from the mean are
the readings?

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R Chart Control Limits

UCLR D4 R From
Table S6.1
LCLR D3 R

k Range for
sample i
Ri
R i 1
k No of samples

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 Steps to Follow When Using
Control Charts
1. Collect 20 to 25 samples of n=4 or n=5
from a stable process and compute the
mean.
2. Compute the overall means, set
approximate control limits (usually
3),and calculate the preliminary upper
and lower control limits.If the process is
not currently stable, use the desired
mean (target) instead of the overall
mean to calculate limits.
3. Graph the sample means and ranges on 16
their respective control charts and
Steps to Follow When Using
Control Charts - continued
4. Investigate points or patterns that
indicate the process is out of control.
Assign causes for the variations.
5. Collect additional samples and
revalidate the control limits.

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Mean and Range Charts
Complement Each Other

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p Chart

Type of attributes control chart

e.g., good-bad
Shows % of nonconforming items
percent defective
Example: Count # of defective chairs
& divide by total chairs inspected; Plot
Chair is either defective or not defective

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p Chart Control Limits
UCLp p z p p = mean fraction defective
z = 2 for 95.5% limits;
LCL p p z p z = 3 for 99.7% limits
k
xi
p i1
k No of defective
ni
i1 Items in Sample i

p (1 p )
p Size of sample i
n
wheren sizeof eachsample
k = no of samples
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P-Chart Find if the process
is in control?
Sample Number Fraction Sample Number Fraction
Number of Errors Defective Number of Errors Defective
1 6 .06 11 6 .06
2 5 .05 12 1 .01
3 0 .00 13 8 .08
4 1 .01 14 7 .07
5 4 .04 15 5 .05
6 2 .02 16 4 .04
7 5 .05 17 11 .11
8 3 .03 18 3 .03
9 3 .03 19 0 .00
10 2 .02 20 4 .04
Total = 80
c Chart
Type of attributes control chart
Shows number of nonconformities
(defects) in a unit
Unit may be chair, steel sheet, car etc.
Size of unit must be constant
Example: Count # defects
(scratches, chips etc.) in each chair
of a sample of 100 chairs; Plot

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c Chart Control Limits

UCL c c 3 c Use 3 for 99.7%

limits

LCLc c 3 c
# Defects in
k Unit i
ci
c i 1
# Units Sampled
k
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Deciding Which Control
Chart to Use
Using an X and R chart:
Observations are variables

Collect 20-25 samples of n=4, or n=5, or

more each from a stable process and
compute the mean for the X chart and
range for the R chart.

Track samples of n observations each.

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Deciding Which Control
Chart to Use
Using the P-Chart:
We deal with fraction, proportion, or
percent defectives
Observations are attributes that can
be categorized in two states
Have several samples, each with many
observations
Assume a binomial distribution unless
the number of samples is very large
then assume a normal distribution.

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Deciding Which Control
Chart to Use
Using a C-Chart:
Observations are attributes whose
defects per unit of output can be
counted
The number counted is often a small
part of the possible occurrences
Assume a Poisson distribution
Defects such as: number of blemishes
on a desk, number of typos in a page of
text, flaws in a square metre of cloth

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Patterns to Look for in
Control Charts

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Finding Patterns Run Test
Two types of Run Test
U/D test
Above/Below Test

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 Test Statistics
A/B Run
E(r) = N/2+1
St dev(r) = (N-1)/4
U/D Run
E(r )= (2N-1)/3
St dev(r) = (16N-29)/90

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Process Capability
The natural variation of a process should
be small enough to produce products that
meet the standards required
A process in statistical control does not
necessarily meet the design
specifications
Process capability is a measure of the
relationship between the natural variation
of the process and the design
specifications
 Process Capability ratio

Upper Specification - Lower Specification

Cp =
6
A capable process must have a Cp of at
least 1.0
Does not look at how well the process is
centered in the specification range
Often a target value of Cp = 1.33 is used
to allow for off-center processes
Six Sigma quality requires a Cp = 2.0
 Process Capability Index

Upper Lower
Specification - x x - Specification
Cpk = minimum of Limit , Limit

A capable process must have a Cpk of at least

1.33
A capable process is not necessarily in the
center of the specification, but it falls within
the specification limit at both extremes