STRUCTURAL RESPONSE 2.3.1.3-2.3.

3
Izet Mehmetaj
CHARACTERISTICS
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CONTENTS
2.3.1.3 Non-structural damage control
2.3.2 Strength
2.3.2.1 Factors influencing strength
2.3.2.2 Effects on Load Path
2.3.2.3 Structural damage control
2.3.3 Ductility

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2.3.1.3 NON-STRUCTURAL
DAMAGE CONTROL
Non-structural damage due to earthquakes can be attributed to
excessive lateral drifts of structural systems.
Structure may possesses sufficient strength to support earthquake
loads but have insufficient lateral stiffness to limit the non-
structural damage.
Strength limit states do not provide the right drift control.
Modern seismic design codes include strict drift limits to ensure
adequate lateral stiffness of the structure resulting in the
reducement of the non-structural damage.

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 CONTD
Infill panels and brick walls influence the response of frames with low lateral stiffness,
e.g. multi-storey steel frames.
Masonry and precast concrete infills are frequently used as interior partitions and
exterior walls in steel composites as well as RC structures. Their interaction with the
building frame should be considered in the assessment of the seismic performance.
Infills often acts as shear walls and affect the seismic structural response in:
Stiffening of the structure: the importance of this effect depends on the characteristics of the ground
motion.
Load path: infills alter the lateral stiffness distribution of the structure causing unexpected stress
concentrations from the interaction of wall panels and bounding frames
Failure mechanism: the presence of infills cause shear failures especially in multi-storey frames and
where incomplete panel infilling is used.

As a result of their contribution to the lateral stiffness of structures,

infills undergo cracks and damages during earthquakes
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CONTD
Non-structural damage can be controlled by imposing strict drift
limits.
Experimental and analytical studies have demonstrated that infills
continue to govern the overall response of the structure even after
cracking during an earthquake.
The presence of masonry infills may affect the response positively
or negatively, depending on the bare frame period and its
relationship with the dominant period of input motion.

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2.3.2 STRENGTH
Strength defines the capacity of a member or an assembly of
members to resist actions.
It is usually defined as a function of the type of applied action.
Axial, bending and shear resistances are used to quantify the
capacity of structures and their components in earthquake
structural engineering.

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 CONTD

The shear capacity V of the system is defined with the respect to e

the shear at yield Vy or at maximum strength Vmax. Shear capacity c
also expressed at any intermediate point between Vy and Vmax .
Similarly are evaluated also the axial (N) and bending (M)
resistances through axial load- axial displacement and moment-rota
relationships similar to that shown in the figure.
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CONTD
The definition of strength parameters is more straightforward than
stiffness.
Their uncertainities in the evaluation of structural capacities are
attributed to the randomness in material properties, geometric
properties: section and member size, construction quality.

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2.3.2.1 FACTORS
INFLUENCING STRENGTH
i. Material properties
The efficient use of material strength it is quantified by the specific
strength- the strength to weight ratio /.Specific elasticity E/ is also
included.
Fibre composites, wood and metals posses the highest values of specific
strength-suitable for earthquake structural engineering applications.
Depending on the distribution of the properties along the three principle
axes, construction materials may be isotropic, orthotropic or anisotropic.
Isotropic materials-structural steel, unreinforced concrete
Orthotropic- laminated materials
Anisotropic- masonry, wood, fiber-reinforced composites

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CONTD
Strength of materials is influenced by strain hardening and softening
as well as strain rate effects.
Strain softening occurrence: a loss of both strength and stiffness as
the strain increases, i.e. concrete.
It can be reduced in RC systems by providing transverse confinement of concrete
by hoops or spirals.
Circular hoops are more efficient because they confine uniformly concrete core

Under dynamic loads the material strength increases as the strain

rate increase.
In concrete, also the stiffness is a function of strain rate, the increase
of stiffness is lower than that in compressive strength.
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CONTD
In RC beam elements, where the seismic response is controlled by
steel reinforcement bars, strain rates have minor effects.
Both strain hardening and strain rate effects influence the over
strength of structural systems under earthquake loading.

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II. SECTION PROPERTIES
Section properties influence the lateral strength of structural systems.
Area A of cross-section: affects both axial and shear capacity
Flexural (I) and torsional (J) moments of inertia: influence flexural and torsional capacity

To achieve cost-designs, the shape of cross sections should be selected as a function of

the applied action and lateral resisting system.
Section capacities depend on the interaction between different types of applied actions,
axial load N, bending moment M and shear force V.
Shear-axial and shear-flexure interactions affect the seismic response of the beams and
columns in framed systems. These interactions and their effects reduce the capacity of
RC sections.
The strength of steel cross-sections may be also reduced by local buckling. Adequate
width-to-thickness (b/t) and diameter-to-wall thickness (d/t) ratios for the plates,
forming webs and flanges of the cross section, should be used to prevent local buckling.

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III. MEMBER PROPERTIES
System strength is effected by the properties of structural
components.
Columns generally posses lower flexural and shear strengths than
structural walls.
Slender walls are frequently used to increase lateral stiffness and
strength in medium-to high-rise frames, they can withstand high
overturning moments and base shears as long as their connection to
the foundation system does not fail.
Confinement of compressed concrete and prevention of steel bar
buckling are essential to reach member capacity of walls and columns.

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CONTD

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IV. CONNECTION
PROPERTIES
The loss of stiffness and strength of structural joints leads to the deterioration of
stiffness and strength of the frame.

In order to achieve adequate global seismic performance, joint stresses and

deformations should be limited to tolerable levels.
Connection between horizontal diaphragms and lateral force-resisting systems (frames
and walls) influence the global action and deformation capacity of the structure.
To prevent punching shear, connections between RC flat slabs and columns should possess high shear
capacity
The local and global strengths are also affected by shear connecters between
structural steel and concrete components.
Weak connections between foundations and superstructures may cause liding sear or
overturning.

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 CONTD

ing is a common failure mode observed in masonry and wood buildin

caused primarily by the low strength of fastenings.
erturning of walls in masonry and wood systems is often caused by th
quate resistance of connections between orthogonal structural walls.

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V. SYSTEM PROPERTIES
The overall lateral earthquake resistance of a system is not the
sum of the resistance of its components and the connections
between them.
Beams, columns, connections and infill panels, interact in a
complex manner.

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2.3.2.2 EFFECTS ON LOAD
PATH
Earthquake-resistant structures should be provided with lateral and
vertical seismic force-resisting systems capable of transmitting inertial
forces from the location of masses throughout the structure to the
foundations.
Inadequate lateral resisting systems and connections interrupt the load
path.
In framed structures, gravity and inertial loads at each storey are
transmitted first to the beams by floor diaphragms (or slabs) then to
columns and foundations.
The load path may be altered by mechanical and geometrical
properties of beam-to-column and column-to-base connections.
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CONTD
For a safe transfer of the seismic forces to the ground if important
to have a continuity between structural components.
When it comes to structural damage, earthquakes are likely to find
the weakest link in any complex system and cause damage to the
most vulnerable element.
Load paths depend on the structural system utilized to resist
vertical and horizontal loads.

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CONTD
Gravity and earthquake loads should flow in a continuous and smooth path
through the horizontal and vertical elements of structures and be transferred
to the supporting ground.
Discontinuities are frequently present in plan and elevation. Sidestepping and
offsetting are common vertical discontinuities which lead to unfavourable
stress concentrations.
In plan these openings in diaphragms may considerably weaken slab
capacities.
Assymetry in plan and elevation, due to off-centre structural cores alters the
load transfer from the superstructure to the foundations. Systems with
asymmetries may lead to undesirable torsional effects and stress
concetrations.
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CONTD
Load paths may also be significantly affected by masonry and
concrete infills in framed structures
Masonry and concrete infills are generally distributed non-uniformly
in plan and elevation.
Irregular layouts of infills may generate considerable torsional
effects and lead to high stress concentrations, especially in
columns.

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2.3.2.3 STRUCTURAL
DAMAGE CONTROL
Strength failure may be caused by the accumulation of stresses
beyond the capacity of materials, members and connections in the
structure.
The occurrence of damage in structural components can be also
associated with the onset of target values of strains (materials),
curvatures (sections), rotations (elements and connections), inter-
storey drifts (sub-system) and global drift (systems).
In general damage increases as the load and deformation
resistance is lowered.

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2.3.3 Ductility
Ductility is defined as the ability of a material, component,
connection or structure to undergo inelastic deformations with
acceptable stiffness and strength reduction.
Brittle systems fail after reaching their strength limit at very low
inelastic deformations.
The collapse of brittle systems occurs suddenly beyond the
maximum resistance because of lack of ductility.
Most structures are designed to behave inelastically under strong
earthquakes for reasons of economy.

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CONTD
The general analytical definition of displacement ductility is given
as:, and are displacements at ultimate and yield points
respectively and is the ductility factor.
To evaluate structural response the following types of ductility are
widely used:
Material ductility - characterizes material plastic deformations
Section (curvature) ductility - relates to plastc deformations of cross sections
Member (rotaion) ductility - quantifies plastic rotations that can take place in
structural components such as beams and columns.
Structural (displacement) ductility - a global measure of the inelastic
performance of structuralsub-assemblages or systems subjected to horizontal
loads.
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Definitions for the ductility
factors
i. Definition of ductility factor based on cyclic response
The factor is related to the cyclic deformation:
, the positive and negative ultimate deformations
, are the corresponding deformation at the yield point

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CONTD
ii.
Definition of ductility factor based on total hysteric energy:
,

Et,H the total hysteretic energy; EE the elastic energy (strain

energy) at yield.

EE = 0,5Fyy where Fy and y are the action and deformation at

first yield

Et,H = where the summation is over all cycles N up to failure E i,H

the hysteretic energy dissipated in the i-th cycle.

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CONTD
In seismic design, high available ductility is essential to ensure plastic
redistribution of actions among components of lateral resisting systems, and
to allow for large absorption and dissipation of earthquake input energy.
Ductile systems may withstand extensive structural damage without
collapsing or endangering life safety.
Structural collapse is caused by earthquakes, which may impose ductility
demand d that may exceed the available ductility a of the structural
system.
Seven factors may lead to reduction of available ductility a like: strain rate
effects, reduction of energy absorption due to plastic deformations,
overstrength leading to structures not yield when they were intended to yield
and tendency of some materials to exhibit brittle fracture.
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THE END
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