Basic

What is Computer Networking?

Computer network is a group of two or more computers
that are interconnected to share resources (data, hardware,
software)
 Classification of Network
Personal Area Network (PAN)
Local Area Network (LAN)
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
Wide Area Networks (WAN)
Campus Area Network(CAN)

Personal Area Network (PAN)

The interconnection of devices within the range of an
individual person, typically within a range of 10 meters. For
example, a wireless network connecting a computer with its
keyboard, mouse or printer is a PAN.
Another example of PAN is a Bluetooth. Typically, this kind of
network could also be interconnected without wires to the
Internet or other networks.
 PAN
Local Area Network (LAN)
Privately-owned networks covering a small geographic area,
like a home, office, building or group of buildings (e.g.
campus).
Traditional LANs run at speeds of 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps, have
low delay (microseconds or nanoseconds), and make very few
errors. Newer LANs operate at up to 10 Gbps
 LAN
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
Covers a larger geographical area than is a LAN, ranging from
several blocks of buildings to entire cities
A MAN might be owned and operated by a single
organization, but it usually will be used by many individuals
and organizations.
Metropolitan Area Networks can span up to 50km, devices
used are modem and wire/cable
 MAN

Campus area network (CAN)

Which covers an area equivalent to an academic campus or
business park. A CAN is typically owned or used exclusively
by one company, school, or organization.
 CAN

Wide Area Networks (WAN)

Computer network that covers a large geographical area, often a
country or continent.
A network that uses routers and public communications links.
WAN

Networks by Scale
 Network Fundamentals

What is Network Topology?

Network topology is a usually schematic description of the
arrangement of a network, including its nodes and
connecting lines. There are two ways of defining network
geometry: the physical topology and the logical (or signal)
topology.
Physical topology is the physical layout of the network, how
the cables are arranged and how the computers are
connected.
Logical topology refers to the nature of the paths the signals
follow from node to node.

There are several common physical topologies, as described

below

* Bus *Mesh
*Ring * Hybrid
* Star *Tree
 Network Fundamentals
Bus Topology
Topology in which all of the nodes of the network are
connected to a common transmission medium which has
exactly two endpoints (this is the "bus", which is also
commonly referred to as the backbone, or trunk)
All data that is transmitted between nodes in the network is
transmitted over this common transmission medium and is
able to be received by all nodes in the network virtually
simultaneously
The two endpoints of the common transmission medium are
normally terminated with a device called a terminator
 Network Fundamentals

Star Topology
Topology in which each of the nodes of the network is
connected to a central node with a point-to-point link in a
"hub or Switch
All data that is transmitted between nodes in the network is
transmitted to this central node
 Network Fundamentals
Ring Topology
Topology in which each of the nodes of the network is
connected to two other nodes in the network and with the
first and last nodes being connected to each other, forming a
ring
All data that is transmitted between nodes in the network
travels from one node to the next node in a circular manner
and the data generally flows in a single direction only.
 Network Fundamentals
Mesh Topology
Topology in which each of the nodes of the network is
connected to each of the other nodes in the network with a
point-to-point link this makes it possible for data to be
simultaneously transmitted from any single node to all of the
other nodes.
The physical fully connected mesh topology is generally too
costly and complex for practical networks, although the
topology is used when there are only a small number of
nodes to be interconnected
 Network Fundamentals
Tree Topology
Topology in which a central "root" node (the top level of the
hierarchy) is connected to one or more other nodes that are
one level lower in the hierarchy (i.e., the second level) with a
point-to-point link between each of the second level nodes
and the top level central "root" node, while each of the second
level nodes that are connected to the top level central "root"
node will also have one or more other nodes that are one
level lower in the hierarchy
 Network Fundamentals

Hybrid Topology
The hybrid topology is a type of network topology that is
composed of one or more interconnections of two or more
networks that are based upon different physical topologies
 These days, the physical installation of a NIC is relatively easy.
Step 1 Shut down or power off the PC.
Step 2 Disconnect the power cord from the PC.
Step 3 Connect an antistatic strap to your wrist to protect
the computer and NIC from your bodys static
electricity.
Step 4 Insert the NIC into the expansion slot(PCI Slot)
Step 5 Reassemble the PC and turn it on.
Step 6 Install the Driver if Required
 Configure NIC Card in Windows XP Professional
My Network Place (Click Properties)
Local Area Network (Click Properties)
TCP/IP(Click Properties)
 Types of Cables
Twisted Pair Cable
Co-axial Cable
Fiber Optical Cable

Twisted Pair Cable

Twisted pair is a type of cable in which multiple insulated
conductors are twisted around each other and clad in a
protective and insulating outer jacket. Typically, two
conductors are twisted around each other. These pairs may
be twisted together with other pairs depending on the type
and size of cabling. Shielding can be added around the
bundle of twisted pairs to reduce electronic interference.
Twisted pair cable can be categorized into two type
UTP
STP
 UTP Cable
Does not include shielding around its conductors. Typically
contains four pairs of stranded or solid conductors.
Inexpensive and reliable. Supports distances of up to 100
meters (328 feet). Supports data transfer rates up to 1 Gbps
 UTP Cable Categories
Twisted pair cable comes in different grades, called
categories, which speeds and technologies. These categories
are summarized in the following
Category Type Maximum Speed

Cat 1 Voice grade; not suitable for networking

Cat 2 Digital telephone and low-speed networks

Cat 3 Ethernet. Maximum speed: 10 Mbps

Cat 4 IBM Token Ring. Maximum speed: 16 Mbps

Cat 5 and Cat Category 5: Fast Ethernet. Maximum speed:

5e 100Mbps
Category5e: Gigabit Ethernet. Maximum speed:
350Mbps

Cat 6 Gigabit Ethernet. Maximum speed: 1 Gbps

Cat 7 Gigabit Ethernet. Maximum speed: 1 Gbps+

 STP Cable
Includes shielding, typically a foil wrapper, around its
conductors to improve the cables resistance to interference
and noise. Typically contains four pairs of stranded or solid
conductors. Supports distances up to 100 meters (328 feet).
More expensive than UTP. Most commonly used in Token
Ring networking.
 Twisted Pair Connectors
The RJ-45 connector is used on the twisted pair cable. RJ-45
is an eight-pin connector used with networking connections
other than Local Talk.
 Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable, or coax, is a type of copper cable that features
a central conductor surrounded by braided or foils shielding.
A dialectric insulator separates the conductor and shield and
the entire package is wrapped in an insulating layer called a
jacket
The data signal is transmitted over the central conductor. The
outer shielding serves to reduce electromagnetic interference
 Types of Coaxial Cable
RG58/U (Radio Guide 58/Universal)
A 5 mm (0.25 inch) coax cable with a solid core and 50
ohms impedance. RG58/U is used for Ethernet networking.
RG58A/U
A 5 mm (0.25 inch) coax cable with a stranded core and 50
ohms impedance. RG58A/U is used for Ethernet networking.
RG8
A 10 mm (0.5 inch) coax cable with a solid core and 50
ohms impedance. RG8 is used for Ethernet networking.
RG9
A 5 mm (0.25 inch) coax cable with a stranded core and 75
ohm impedance. RG9 is used for cable television
transmissions and cable modems.
RG62
A 5 mm (0.25 inch) coax cable with a solid core and 93
ohms impedance. RG62 was used for ARCNET networking.
 Fiber Optic Cable
Fiber optic cable is a type of network cable in which the core
is one or more glass or plastic strands.
The core is between 5 and 100 microns thick and is
surrounded by silica cladding, which adds strength and
protection for the fragile glass or plastic core. An outer
jacket, sometimes called armor, wraps and protects the whole
assembly
Light pulses from a laser or high intensity LED are passed
through the core to carry the signal. The cladding reflects the
light back into the core, increasing the distance the signal can
travel without being regenerated.

Types of Fiber Optic Cable

Single-mode fiber
Multimode fiber
 Single-mode fiber
Carries a single optical signal. Has a small core, which allows
only a single beam of light to pass. A laser, usually operating
in the infrared portion of the spectrum, is modulated in
amplitude (intensity) to transmit the signal through the fiber.
 Step index multimode fiber
Permits multiple optical signals. Core is typically 50 or more
microns, which allows multiple beams of light to pass. Light
is sent at angles to the fiber so that it reflects off the sides of
the strand along its length.
 Fiber Connectors
Various connectors are used with fiber optic cable.
 ST
Used to connect multimode fiber, ST (Straight Tip) connectors look like
BNC connectors. They have a straight, ceramic center bin and bayonet
lockdown. They are often used in network patch panels. ST connectors
are perhaps the most popular type of fiber connector.

SC
Box-shaped connectors that snap into a receptacle. SC (Subscriber Connector
or Standard Connector) connectors are often used in a duplex
configuration where two fibers are terminated into two SC connectors that
are molded together. SC is used with single-mode fiber.

FC
Similar to SMA connectors, FC (Face Contact) connectors use a heavy
duty ferrule in the center for more mechanical stability than SMA or ST
connectors. These connectors are more popular in industrial settings
where greater strength is required.
 Crimping of UTP Cables are divided into three types
Straight Cables
Crossover Cables
Rolled over Cables

Straight Cables
It is used between dissimilar devices e.g.: Hub to PC, PC to
Switch, Switch to Router..etc

Side 1 Side 2
Orange White Orange White
Orange Orange
Green White Green White
Blue Blue
Blue White Blue White
Green Green
Brown White Brown White
Brown Brown
 Crossover Cables
It is used between similar devices e.g. Hub to Hub, Switch to
Switch, PC to PCetc

Side 1 Side 2
Orange White Green White
Orange Green
Green White Orange White
Blue Blue
Blue White Blue white
Green Orange
Brown White Brown white
Brown Brown
 Rolled Over Cables
It is used for connecting Router Console port to PC Com Port

Side 1 Side 2
Orange White Brown
Orange Brown White
Green White Green
Blue Blue White
Blue White Blue
Green Green White
Brown White Orange
Brown Orange white
 In addition to the hosts, LANs may use other devices to
control physical access to the shared medium, extend the
maximum reach of the LAN, switch traffic, and so on.

NIC Card
Repeaters
Hub
Switch
Bridges
Routers
Gateways
 Network Interface Cards
For a PC to use a network, it must have some interface to the
network cabling. PCs use network interface cards (NICs) to
provide that interface. NICs are expansion cards that give a
PC an interface to a network

MAC Address
A MAC address, also called a physical address, is a unique,
hardware-level address assigned to every networking device
by its manufacturer. MAC addresses are six bytes long. The
first three bytes uniquely identify the manufacturer and are
referred to as the Organizationally Unique
Identifier (OUI). The remaining three bytes identify the
device itself and are known as the Universal LAN MAC
address.
NIC/LAN Card
 Repeaters
A repeater is a device that regenerates a signal to improve
transmission distance. By using repeaters, you can exceed the
normal limitations on segment lengths imposed by the
various networking technologies.

The 5-4-3 Rule

There is a limit to how many repeaters you can install before
timing problems prevent the proper reception of network
signals. You can connect up to five segments using four
repeaters; however, only three of those segments can contain
nodes. This numeric relation is called the 5-4-3 rule.
 Hub
A hub is a networking device used to connect the drops in a
physical star topology network into a logical bus topology.
Hubs support transmission speeds of 10 Mbps, 100 Mbps,
simultaneously. There are active hubs, which regenerate the
signal like a repeater. There also passive hubs, which simply
connect the segments without modifying the signal.
 Switch
A switch is a networking device used to connect the drops in
a physical star topology network into a logical bus topology.
Switches forward packets to the correct port based on MAC
addresses. Switches work with pairs of ports, connecting two
segments as needed. Most switches can work with multiple
pairs of ports simultaneously to improve performance.
 Bridges
A bridge is a network device that divides a logical bus
network into subnets. Bridges examine the MAC address of
each packet. If the packet is destined for a node connected to
a different port, the bridge forwards the packet. If the packet
is addressed to a node on its own segment, the bridge does
not forward the packet. This arrangement reduces traffic
between segments and improves overall network
performance.
 Routers
A router is a networking device that connects multiple
networks that use the same protocol. Routers send data
between networks by examining the network addresses
contained in the packets they process.
 Gateways
A gateway is a device, software, or a system that converts
data between incompatible systems .Gateways can translate
data between different operating systems, between different
email formats, or between totally different networks.
 OSI was developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) and introduced in 1984.
It is a layered architecture (consists of seven layers).
Each layer defines a set of functions which takes part in data
communication
 OSI MODEL

Physical layer Concerned with transmission of unstructured bit

stream over the physical link. It invokes such parameters as
signal voltage swing and bit duration. It deals with the
mechanical, electrical, procedural characteristics to establish,
maintain and deactivate the physical link

Data Link layer Provides reliable transfer of data across the

physical link. It sends blocks of data (frames) with the necessary
synchronization, error control and flow control.

Network layer Provides upper layers with independence from

the data transmission and switching technologies used to
connect systems. It is responsible for establishing, maintaining
and terminating connections.

Transport layer Provides reliable, transparent transfer of data

between end points. It provides end-to-end error recovery and
flow control.
 OSI MODEL

Session layer Provides the control structure for

communication between applications. It establishes, manages
and terminates connections (sessions) between cooperating
applications.

Presentation layer Performs transformations on data to

provide a standardized application interface and to provide
common communications services. It provides services such
as encryption, text compression and reformatting.

Application layer Provides services to the users, FTP, HTTP,

TELNET, etc.
 OSI MODEL
Segmentation
In general, segmentation is the process of breaking
something into smaller units. In networking terms,
segmentation is the process in which a large data is broken
down to a number of small-sized data units. This is
performed by the sender before transmitting the packets.
With reference to Open Systems Interconnection (OSI), the
segmentation is performed at the transport layer. The small-
sized data units are called Protocol Data Units (PDUs). The
network layer will encapsulate PDUs into packets later down
the path towards hardware.
 Packet
A packet is the unit of data that is routed between an origin
and a destination on the Internet

Reassembly
All such received PDUs will be reassembled back to form the
original data at the receiving end; and the process is termed
reassembly. This is again performed at the transport layer of
the OSI
 OSI MODEL

Fragmentation
Each physical network imposes some maximum transmission
size, called the Maximum Transfer Unit (MTU), on the packets
that may be sent over it. When the size of the packet exceeds
the limits of the network on the outgoing interface, the
packet must be broken into smaller packets, each of which
carries a portion of the original data. This process is called
Fragmentation.
When the fragment packets arrive at their destination, the
destination host must join the fragments together again
before processing the original packet in the normal way.
 OSI MODEL

Datagram
A datagram is an independent, self-contained message sent
over the network whose arrival, arrival time, and content are
not guaranteed.
 OSI MODEL

Windowing
Windowing is a flow control scheme in which the source
computer will monitor and make adjustments to the amount
of information sent based on successful, reliable receipt of
data segments by the destination computer. The size of the
data transmission, called the "window size",
Window size 1
In the most basic form of reliable data transfer, the source
computer sends data segments one segment at a time. The
source waits for acknowledgment from the destination
indicating expectation of the next data segment (an
expectation acknowledgement) and then sends the next data
segment. In this example, where the window size is 1, we are
ensured that all data segments will arrive and will arrive in
order
 OSI MODEL

Window size 3
If the window size is changed to 3, the source computer can
transmit up to 3 data segments at a time before expecting a
single acknowledgement in return. It must wait for an
acknowledgment before sending another set of 3 data
segments
 TCP/IP is an industry standard set of protocols developed by
the U.S. Department of Defense Advanced Research Projects
Agency (DARPA) in 1969. It maps TCP/IP protocols to a four-
layer conceptual model known as the DARPA model. It is
often compared to the still born OSI Protocol Layers The four
layers of the DARPA model are:
 Application layer
Refers to standard network services like http, ftp, telnet as well
as communication methods used by various application
programs

Transport layer
Manages the transfer of data by using connection oriented
(TCP) and connectionless (UDP) transport protocols Manages
the connections between networked applications

Internet layer
Manages addressing of packets and delivery of packets
between networks

Network Interface layer

Delivers data via physical link (Ethernet is the most common
link level protocol ) Provides error detection and packet framing
 IPX/SPX is a routable protocol and can be used for small and
large networks. It was created by Novell primarily for Novell
NetWare networks, but is popular enough that it is used on
products that are not from Novell.

OSI Model SPX

IPX
Application
Presentation NCP SAP
Session
Transport
Network IPX SPX
Data Link NDIS/NIC
drivers
Physical
 NCP - NetWare Core Protocol provides for client/server
interactions such as file and print sharing. It works at the
application, presentation, and session levels.

SAP - Service Advertising Protocol packets are used by file and

print servers to periodically advertise the address of the server
and the services available. It works at the application,
presentation, and session levels.

SPX - Sequenced Packet Exchange operates at the transport layer

providing connection oriented communication on top of IPX.

IPX - Internetwork Packet Exchange supports the transport and

network layers of the OSI network model. Provides for network
addressing and routing. It provides fast, unreliable,
communication with network nodes using a connection less
datagram service.
 NetBEUI (NetBIOS Extended User Interface) is a new, extended
version of NetBIOS the program that lets computers
communicates within a local area network. NetBEUI
(pronounced net-BOO-ee) formalizes the frame format (or
arrangement of information in a data transmission) that was
not specified as part of NetBIOS. NetBEUI was developed by
IBM for its LAN Manager product and has been adopted by
Microsoft for its Windows NT, LAN Manager, and Windows for
Workgroups products. Hewlett-Packard and DEC use it in
comparable products.

NetBEUI is the best performance choice for communication

within a single LAN. Because, like NetBIOS, it does not
support the routing of messages to other networks.
 At a purely physical level, AppleTalk is a network with a bus
topology that uses a trunk cable between connection
modules. Interfacing with the network is handled by the Serial
Communications Control chip found in every Mac. Any device
attaches to a connection box via a short cable (called a drop
cable).This type of network is known as a multidrop line or a
multipoint link. AppleTalk is capable of supporting up to 32
nodes per network and can transmit data at a rate of
230,400 bits per second. Nodes can be separated by a
maximum cable length of 1000 feet
 Ping
A utility to determine whether a specific IP address is
accessible. It works by sending a packet to the specified
address and waiting for a reply. PING is used primarily to
troubleshoot Internet connections.
 Ipconfig
Ipconfig is a command line tool used to control the network
connections on Windows NT/2000/XP machines
Ipconfig displays the IP address, subnet mask, and default
gateway for all adapters.
 Hostname
A hostname (occasionally also, a site name) is the unique
name by which a network-attached device (which could
consist of a computer)
 Trace route
A utility that traces a packet from your computer to an
Internet host, showing how many hops the packet requires to
reach the host and how long each hop takes.
 ARP
Address Resolution Protocol", is used to map IP Network
addresses to the hardware (Media Access Control sub layer)
addresses used by the data link protocol. The ARP protocol
operates between the network layer and the data link layer in
the Open System Interconnection (OSI) model
 Telnet
Telnet is a user command and an underlying TCP/IP protocol
for accessing remote computers. Through Telnet, an
administrator or another user can access someone else's
computer remotely
 An IP address is a 32-bit sequence of 1s and 0s to make
the IP address easier to use, the address is usually written as
four decimal numbers separated by periods. This way of
writing the address is called the dotted decimal format.

xxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxx
Where X can be 0 or 1

Min value (binary) 00000000.00000000.00000000.00000000

Min value (Decimal) 0.0.0.0
Max value (binary)
11111111.11111111.11111111.11111111
Max value (Decimal) 255.255.255.255

Range of each Octet

0 to 255 0 to 255 0 to 255 0 to 255
 IP Address Classes
By using the first Octet designers of the TCP/IP suite defined five
blocks of addresses, called address classes, for specific network
uses and sizes.
0 to 127
128 to 191
192 to 223 0 to 255 0 to 255 0 to 255
224 to 239
240 to 255

Each IP address consists of a network ID and a host ID.

The network ID identifies the systems that are located on the
same network. The network ID must be unique to the
internetwork.
The host ID identifies a TCP/IP network device (or host) within a
network.
In host part 0 and 255 cannot be assign
0 means no host and 255 means Broadcast
 Class A Address
Host ID

0 to 127 0 to 255 0 to 255 0 to 255

Network ID

From 0.0.0.0 to 0.255.255.255 are not used in class A

Address range: 1.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255
Number of networks: 126
The IP address 127.0.0.1 is reserved for loopback Test
Number of nodes per network: 16,777,214
Class A addresses provide a small number of network
addresses for networks with a large number of nodes per
network.
 Class B Address

Host ID

128 to 191 0 to 255 0 to 255 0 to 255

Network ID

Address range: 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255

Number of networks: 16,382
Number of nodes per network: 65,534
Class B addresses provide a balance between the
number of network addresses and the number of nodes
per network.
 Class C Address

Host ID

192 to 223 0 to 255 0 to 255 0 to 255

Network ID

Address range: 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255

Number of networks: 2,097,150
Number of nodes per network: 254
Class C addresses provide a large number of network
addresses for networks with a small number of nodes per
network.
 Class D Address

224 to 239 0 to 255 0 to 255 0 to 255

Address range: 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255

Number of networks: N/A
Number of nodes per network: N/A
Network ID portion: N/A
Node ID portion: N/A
Class D addresses are set aside to support multicast
transmissions. Any
network can use them, regardless of the base network ID.
A multicast
server assigns a single Class D address to all members of a
multicast
session. There is no subnet mask. Class D addresses are
routable only with special support from the routers.
 Class E Address

240 to 255 0 to 255 0 to 255 0 to 255

Class E addresses are set aside for research and

experimentation.
Address range: 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255
Number of networks: N/A
Number of nodes per network: N/A
Network ID portion: N/A
Node ID portion: N/A
Default subnet mask: N/A
 IANA
All Internet addresses are assigned by a central authority.
The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) has ultimate
control over network IDs assigned and sets the policy. The
IANA has delegated this responsibility to
three regional Internet registries:

ARIN (American Registry for Internet Numbers)

RIPE (Reseaux IP European)
APNIC (Asia Pacific Network Information Centre)

Note: In 1993, an international organization called the

Internet Assigned Number Authority (IANA) was established to
govern the use of Internet IP addresses. Today, that function
is taken care of by ICANN (Internet Corporation for Assigned
Names and Numbers
 Private Addresses
ICANN has set aside three non routable address ranges that
a company can use internally to enable their network nodes
to communicate with one another using TCP/IP. When an
Internet router receives a data packet bound for one of these
reserved IP addresses, it recognizes the address as non
routable and does not forward it outside the company. These
private IP addresses can be used freely on internal networks;
because they are not routable, they do not cause duplicate IP
address conflicts on the Internet.

Private IP Address Ranges

10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255
172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255
192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255
 Subnet Mask
Subnet Mask is used to determined numbers of network and
host part is used for IP address

The Default Subnet mask for Class

Class Subnet mask

Class A 255.0.0.0

Class B 255.255.0.0

Class C 255.255.255.0
 Network Access Control (NAC) is a computer networking
solution that uses a set of protocols to define and implement
a policy that describes how to secure access to a network
nodes by devices when they initially attempt to access the
network.
NAC might integrate the automatic remediation process into
the network systems, allowing the network infrastructure
such as routers, switches and firewalls to work together.
 All operating systems use some form of security model.
Security can be grouped into two models.
Share-level security
User-level security
 Share-level Security Model
The share level security model is usually implemented on peer to
peer networks. There is no central security entity or security
manager
The user of each computer can decide which resources
associated with his or her machine such as hard disk, printer,
applicationsetc can be made available to another network
users.
The resources are shared and can be protected using password.

User-level Security Model

The user-level security model is implemented most frequently on
client-server networks. Unlike share-level security user level
security creates a centrally managed security structure with user
level security network administrator manage user access to
network resources
User-level; security manages access using an authentication
process
 To prevent hackers from breaking into companies,
compromising sensitive information, organization implement
firewalls.
A firewall is hardware or software that keeps a network
secure by filtering packets as they pass though the system.
Firewalls are widely used to give users access to internet
while separating accompany web server from its internal
network packets can be filtered based on the following
conditions.
Packet flow
Source IP address
Port number

Filtering by IP address
The most basic firewall filter based on IP address the firewall
examines the source and destination IP address of the packet
and accepts or rejects it on this basics
 Filtering by Port Number
If you have a server that offers services on different ports
such as HTTP, FTP, TELNET, and SMTP you can set up a
firewall that filters on the basics of port numbers. That is
especially helpful if you want external users to be limited to
only certain ports.
 Encryption is the process of scrambling information. The
scrambling is not random, however. A key is used to code
and decode the information .The information is useless
without the key to decrypt it. Encryption plays important role
in the network security.

Data must be encrypted by the sending device and then

decrypted by receiving device.
 Implementing Secure Password and User Account Policies

To maximize network security

Instruct users not to use the following as password
Names of their Children
Names of their Family Members
Dont use password that contain only alphabetic characters
Use case-sensitive Passwords, Use Upper and Lower case
characters in password
Specify a minimum length for all passwords
Use Unique password
Direct users to not write there password
 All hardware is susceptible to failure. System failures can occur
due to power, fluctuations, Virus, worn hardware, or misuse.

Planning for a disaster

It is easier to deal with a disaster if you have planned ahead.
Consider the following issues
How critical is the data on the server?
How much will server downtime cost the company per hour?
What will be required to backup and restore data?
Recovery From a disaster
When we faced with data loss, you generally have a these
options.

Restore data from a backup.

Use a third-party Package to recover data.
Use a professional data recovery service.
Third party Utility (GetDataBack for NTFS) to recover data
 Power management in Windows XP
To configure Power Management on Windows XP click on
Start, Run and then Control Panel.
Control Panel has two views. If you are in Theme View double
click on "Performance and Maintenance and then on Power
Options.
 The Power Options Properties dialog box should now be
displayed with the Power Schemes tab selected. Here you can
set timeouts for your monitor, system standby, and
hibernate. Notebook computer users can specify an
alternative power scheme that will take effect when the PC is
running on battery power.
 EPA recommends setting computers to enter system standby
or hibernate after 15 to 60 minutes of inactivity. To save even
more, set monitors to enter sleep mode after 5 to 20 minutes
of inactivity. The lower the setting, the more energy you save.
The "Turn off hard disks" setting does not save much power,
and can be ignored.
If you are not able to select a hibernate timeout, you may
need to enable the hibernate feature. To do so select the
Hibernate tab in Power Options Properties, check "Enable
hibernation" and click "Apply" or "OK".
 You may find that your PC doesn't go to sleep after the
allotted time. PCs may not enter sleep mode when they have
a file open over the network. Additionally, certain software
applications may be preventing the computer from sleeping.
(Software applications can tell Windows not to enter sleep
modes.) Graphics-intensive screen savers can prevent PCs
from entering sleep mode as well, and should be disabled.
If System Standby is not available under Power Options, make
sure you have the latest video driver from your monitor
manufacturer. The default Windows driver may not support
System Standby.
 Three types of Backup

Types of Backup Data Backed Up

Full All Data
Incremental Files that have been created
since the last full backup or
incremental backup
Differential All data that has been
modified since the last full
backup
Backup in Windows XP
All Windows operating systems have the Backup Utility
Start - -> Programs --> Accessories - -> System Tools -->
Backup
Click on Backup to Launch the Utility
Disk Volume Backup

Backup Utility
 Computer viruses are data destructive programs written
with the intent of copying and spreading the destruction to
the other computer and program

Types of Viruses

Boot Viruses
These Virus attack Boot record, MBR, FAT, Partition Table.
Program Viruses
These Virus attack Program files (.exe, .com, sys, drv, bin)
Multi Viruses
These Viruses attack Programs that run Macros
Multi-partite Viruses
These are the viruses that attack both the boot sector and
program files
Antivirus
 Virus Protection

Characteristics of Virus infection

The computer fails to start
Program wont launch
Name of the files are changed or unreadable
Unusual graphics appear on the screen
Variation occur in computer performance such as slow down
the loading operation

Preventing Virus Infection

Install and use at least one anti-virus software program
Scan disk for virus on regular basis
Do not use pirated CD unchecked USB pen drive on computer
Be careful when downloading files from internet or when
opening files attached to email messages
 A service pack (in short SP) is a collection of updates, fixes
and/or enhancements to a software program delivered in the
form of a single installable package. Many companies, such
as Microsoft or Autodesk, typically release a service pack
when the number of individual patches to a given program
reaches a certain (arbitrary) limit. Installing a service pack is
easier and less error-prone than installing a high number of
patches individually, even more so when updating multiple
computers over a network.
 Service packs are usually numbered, and thus shortly referred
to as SP1, SP2, SP3 etc.[1] They may also bring, besides bug
fixes, entirely new features, as is the case of SP2 of Windows
XP.
 Hot fix is a small packed program which is designed to
correct the existing errors in software which has already been
released to users. It can also be used in upgrading the
software.
 A patch is a quick-repair job for a piece of programming.
During a software product's beta test distribution or try-out
period and later after the product is formally released,
problems (called bug) will almost invariably be found. A patch
is the immediate solution that is provided to users; it can
sometimes be downloaded from the software maker's Web
site. This includes
 Operating System Updates (Patches)
Software Program updates (Patches)
Device Driver Updates (Patches)

A patch is usually developed and distributed as a replacement

for or an insertion in compiled code (that is, in a binary file or
.exe).
 When ping fails, youll see one of these error messages:

Request timed out - The IP address is valid, but theres no

reply from it. If the IP address is on a local area network, the
most likely cause is a firewall program blocking the ping.
 Unknown host <name> or Ping request could not find host
<name> - The computer name doesnt exist on the local area
network. Make sure that NetBIOS over TCP/IP is enabled.
 Destination host unreachable The IP address isnt on a local
area network, and the default gateway cant access it. Either
theres no default gateway, its address is wrong, or it isnt
functioning.
 Network Troubleshooting

How to isolate networking problems

People who work with networks think of them in terms of
layers. These layers include the Internet, your modem and
router, and the computer on your network. To troubleshoot a
problem effectively, you must first identify which network
layer is causing the problem. The following diagram shows
the different layers that might be the cause of a problem.
 Network Troubleshooting

Although you can fix most problems yourself, if you can't

fix a problem, it's helpful to know which layer is causing it so
that you can contact the right organization for support.

To identify which layer is causing the problem

Click Start, and then click Control Panel.

Click Network and Internet Connections.
 Network Troubleshooting

In the Network Connections window, examine the status of

your network adapter

Connected. Your computer is properly connected to your

modem, router, or wireless network, but there is a problem
between your router and the Internet.

Disabled. Someone has manually disabled the network

adapter. To fix the problem, right-click the adapter, and then
click Enable.
 Network Troubleshooting

Unplugged. Your computer cannot detect the connection to

your modem or router.

Not connected. Your computer cannot connect to your

wireless network. Read Troubleshooting Microsoft Windows
XP-based wireless networks in the small office or home office
 Network Troubleshooting

Limited or no connectivity. Your computer is properly

connected to your modem, router, or wireless network, but
your router is misconfigured or there is a problem between
your modem and the Internet.

If your network adapter does not appear in the Network

Connections window, it has not been properly installed.
Uninstall the driver and network adapter Then reinstall the
network adapter according to the manufacturer's instructions
or by following the instructions in Install a network adapter
End