Graph - Chandan

Graph Theory
By
Chandan Giri
chandangiri@gmail.com
Graph Theory - History
Leonhard Euler's paper on

Seven Bridges of
Knigsberg ,
published in 1736.
Famous problems
The traveling salesman problem

A traveling salesman is to visit a
number of cities; how to plan the trip
so every city is visited once and just
once and the whole trip is as short as
possible ?
Famous problems
In 1852 Francis Guthrie posed the four color problem

which asks if it is possible to color, using only four
colors, any map of countries in such a way as to
prevent two bordering countries from having the
same color.
This problem, which was only solved a century later in

1976 by Kenneth Appel and Wolfgang Haken, can
be considered the birth of graph theory.
Examples
Cost of wiring electronic components

Shortest route between two cities.
Shortest distance between all pairs of cities in
a road atlas.
Matching / Resource Allocation
Task scheduling
Visibility / Coverage
Examples
Flow of material
liquid flowing through pipes
current through electrical networks
information through communication networks
parts through an assembly line
In Operating systems to model resource handling
(deadlock problems)
In compilers for parsing and optimizing the code.
Basics
Graph Definitions and Notation
1 1 2 3
2 3
4 5 6 4 5 6
Definitions
Vertex
Basic Element
Drawn as a node or a dot.
Vertex set of G is usually denoted by V(G), or V
Edge
A set of two elements
Drawn as a line connecting two vertices, called
end vertices, or endpoints.
The edge set of G is usually denoted by E(G), or E.
Let G=(V,E, g) be a graph and e be an edge of this
graph.
Then there are vertices v and w such that
g(e)={v,w}; vertices v and w are end vertices of e
When a vertex v is an end point of some edge e, we
say that e is an incident with the vertex v and v is
incident with the edge e.
Two vertices v and w of G are said to be adjacent if
there exists an edge e E such that g(e)={v,w}.
Two edges are said to be adjacent if they have
a common end vertex.
If e is an edge such that g(e) = {v,w}, where
v=w, then e is an edge from the vertex v to
itself. Such an edge is called a loop on the
vertex v or at the vertex v.
If there is a loop on v, then v is adjacent to
itself.
e1
v3
v1 v2
v7
e2
e5 e3 e4 e6 e7
v4 v5
v6
Let G=(V, E, g) be a graph.
The incidence function g need not be one one.
Therefore, there may exist edges e1, e2, ., en-1, en,
n 2 such that g(e1)= g(e2) = = g(en) = {v, w}.
Such edges are called parallel edges.
Example:
g(e1)=g(e2)={v1, v2}. So edges e1 and e2 are parallel. Similarly
edges e4, e6 and e7 are parallel.
e1
v1 v2
v7
e2
e5 e3 e4 e6 e7
v4 v5
v6
DEFINITION :: Isolated vertex
Let G be a graph and v be a vertex in G. We say that v is an
isolated vertex if it is not incident with any edge.
DEFINITION :: Degree or valency of a vertex

Let G be a graph and v be a vertex of G. The degree of v,
written as deg(v) or d(v) is the number of edges incident
with v.
We make the convention that each loop on a vertex v
contributes 2 to the degree of v.
Example:
deg(v1)=2
v1 e1 deg (v2)= 1
v2
deg (v3)=3
e2 v5 deg(v4)=2
e3
v4 v3
deg(v5)=0
DEFINITION:: k-regular graph
Let G be graph and k be a nonnegative integer.
G is called a k-regular graph if the degree of each
vertex of G is k
Example:
An interesting k-regular graph is the Petersen 3-
regular graphs follows: v1
v6
v10 v7
v2 v3
v9 v8
v4 v5
DEFINITION :: Even (odd ) degree vertex
Let G be a graph and v be a vertex in G.

v is called an even (odd) vertex if the degree of
v is even (odd)
A vertex with degree one is called the pendant
vertex (or leaf vertex).
Example::
v1 e1 deg(v1)=2 Even
v2
deg (v2)= 1 Odd
e2 deg (v3)=3 Odd
e3
v4 v3 deg(v4)=2 Even
DEFINITION :: Degree Sequence
Let n1, n2, n3, , nk be the degrees of vertices of a graph G such

that n1 n2 n3 nk.
Then the finite sequence n1, n2, n3, , nk is called the degree
sequence of the graph
Every graph has a unique degree sequence.
However, we can construct completely different graphs having
same degree sequence.
Example::
The degree sequence of both of these graphs is 2, 3, 3, 4. But
the graphs are different.
v1 v2 v1 v2
v4 v3 v4 v3
Theorem: The sum of the degrees of all vertices of a graph G is twice the number
of edges.
i.e= = . , where e is the number of edges of the graph and n is the
number of vertices of the graph G.
Proof:
Every edge contributes two to the sum of the degrees, one for each of its end points.
Corollary: In a graph G, the number of odd degree vertices is even.

Proof:It is known that =1 = 2. , where m is the number of edges of the graph.
Hence =1 =
=> + = n
Now is even. As has to be even but are odd degree vertices. So
the number of odd degree vertices should be in even numbers. This proves the
statement.
Corollary: The sum of degrees of all of the vertices of a graph G is an even integer.
--- Follows directly from above theorem
DEFINITION :: Simple Graph
A graph is called a simple graph if G does not contain any parallel

edges and any loop
Theorem:: Let G be a simple graph with at least two vertices. Then G has at least
two vertices of same degree
Prove by your own

DEFINITION :: Complete Graph
A simple graph with n vertices in which there is an edge
between every pair of distinct vertices is called a complete
graph on n vertices. This is denoted as Kn.
a
Example: e
b
K5
d
c
Theorem: The number of edges in a complete graph with n
vertices is n(n-1)/2
Proof:
Every node in the complete graph with n vertices is connected to
all of the other n1 nodes.
Hence, Since each edge has two endpoints, this implies that the
graph has n(n1)/2 edges.
It is also true that n1

i=0 = n(n 1)/2
DEFINITION :: Bipartite Graph
A simple graph G is called a bipartite graph if the vertex set V of G
can be partitioned into Nonempty subsets V1 and V2 such that each
edge of G is incident with one vertex in V1 and one vertex in V2.
V1 V2 is called a bipartition of G.
A
X
B
Y
C
Z
D
Bipartite Graphs
Example I: Is C3 bipartite?
v1 No, because there is no way to partition

the vertices into two sets so that there are
v2 v3 no edges with both endpoints in the same
set.
Example II: Is C6 bipartite?
v1 v6 v1 v6
Yes, because we
v2 v5 can display C6 v5 v2
like this: v4
v3 v4 v3
23
DEFINITION :: Complete Bipartite Graph
A bipartite graph G with bipartition V1V2 is called a complete
bipartite graph on m and n vertices if the subsets V1 and V2 contain
m and n vertices, respectively, such that there is an edge between
each pair of vertices v1 and v2, where v1V1and v2V2.
A complete bipartite graph on m and n vertices is denoted by Km,n
v1 v6
v5 v2
v3 v4
v3 v3
e3 v2 v2 e3
v2 v3
v2 e1
e2 e1
e1 e4
e1 e4 v1 v4 e2
e2 v1 v4
v1 v4 e2
v1 v4 e6 e5
e6
e5
e7 v5
v5 v6
v5
v6
G G1 G2 G3
DEFINITION :: Sub-graph
Let G= (V, E, g) be a graph. The graph G1=(V1, E1, g1) is a sub-graph of G if
a) V1 V and
b) Every edge of G1 is also an edge of G.
A complete sub-graph of G is called a clique.

Subgraph::Graph Definitions
Spanning Sub-graph:
If V1 = V then G1 is called the spanning sub-graph of
G i.e if every vertex V1 of G1 is in G.
Edge disjoint sub-graph:
If G1 and G2 are two sub-graphs of G and they have no
edges are in common then G1 and G2 are edge disjoint.
Vertex disjoint sub-graph
If G1 and G2 are two sub-graphs of G and they have no
vertices are in common then G1 and G2 are edge disjoint.
Are vertex disjoint sub-graphs also edge disjoint sub-graphs?
Not all time.
Sub-graph
Few observations:
Every graph is its own sub-graph
A sub-graph of a sub-graph of G is a sub-graph of
G
A single vertex in a graph G is a sub-graph of G
A single edge in G, together with its vertices, is
also a sub-graph of G
Isomorphism of Graphs
Let G=(V,E) and G={V, E} be graphs.
G and G are sais to be isomorphic if there
exist a pair of functions f:V V and g: E
E that associates each element in V with
exactly one element in V and vice versa;
g associates each element in E with exactly one
element in E and vice versa, and
for each v V, and each e E, if v is an end point
of the edge e, then f(v) is an endpoint of the edge
g(e).
If two graphs are isomorphic then they must
have
The same number of vertices
The same number of edges
The same degrees for corresponding vertices
The same number od connected components
The same number of loops
The same number of parallel edges.
Example: v5
e1
a v4 v3
e e3
5 4 2
e2 e4 e6
1
c
6 3
b d v1 e5 v2
A B
The vertices a, b, c, d, e in the graph (A) corresponds to v1, v2,
v3, v4 and v5 of the graph (B) respectively.
The edges 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 correspond to e1, e2, e3, e4, e5 and
e6 respectively.
Except for the labels (i.e. names ) of their vertices and
edges, isomorphic graphs are the same graph.
Walks, Paths, and Cycles
DEFINITION :: Walk
Let u and v be two vertices in a graph G.
A walk from u to v, in G, is an alternating sequence of n+1 vertices and
n edges of G
(u= v1, e1, v2, e2, v3, e3, .., vn-1, en-1, vn, en, vn+1=v)
beginning with vertex u, called the initial vertex, and ending with vertex
v, called the terminal vertex, in which vi and vi+1 are endpoints of edge ei for
i=1, 2, ., n.
Example:
v1 v2 v5
b
f
Walks:
a c e g v1, b, v2, e, v3, h, v3, d, v4
v6 v4, c, v2, f, v5 , g, v6
v4 d v1, b, v2, c, v4, a, v1
v3
h
DEFINITION :: Directed walk
Let u and v be two vertices in a directed graph G.
A directed walk from u to v in G is an alternating sequence
of n+1 vertices and n arcs of G
(u= v1, e1, v2, e2, v3, e3, .., vn-1, en-1, vn, en, vn+1=v)
beginning with vertex u and ending with vertex v in which
each edge ei, for i=1, 2, , n, is an arc from vi to vi+1
DEFINITION :: Length of a walk (directed walk)
Open walk
Closed
walk
DEFINITION :: Trail and Path
v1 v2 v5
b
f
Walks:
e g v1, b, v2, e, v3, h, v3, d, v4 ---- Not a path, trail
a c
v6 v4, c, v2, f, v5 , g, v6 ------ Path, trail
d v1, b, v2, c, v4, a, v1 ----- Path (also closed path,
v4 v3
cycle), trail (circuit)
h
DEFINITION :: Cycle
DEFINITION :: Circuit
DEFINITION :: Trivial walk, path or trail
DEFINITION :: k-cycle
Some properties of Walks, Paths, and
Cycles
Vertices Edges Comments
Walks Repetition Allowed Repetition Allowed
Trails Repetition Allowed No Repetition of

edges
Paths No repetitions of No Repetition of
vertices except possibly edges
starting and terminal
vertices
Circuits Repetition Allowed No Repetition of A nontrivial closed trail
edges
Cycles No repetitions of Without repetition of
vertices except starting vertices except starting
and terminal vertices and terminal vertices
Theorem: Let G be a graph and u and v be two
vertices of G. If there is a walk from u to v, then there is
a path form u to v.
Theorem: Every circuit contains a sub-walk that is a cycle.

Operations on Graph
DEFINITION :: Complement of a simple graph
Operations on Graph
DEFINITION :: Difference operation
If the graphs G=(V, E) and G=(V, E) are simple and V V,
then the difference graph is G- G = (V, E) where E contains
those edges from G that are not in G (simple graph).
Operations on Graph
Operations on Graph
Operations on Graph
DEFINITION ::Removal of a vertex
i.e. deletion of a vertex v means the deletion of the vertex v and deletion of
all the edges incident on v.
DEFINITION ::Removal of a edge
If e is an edge of the graph G = (V, E) then G e is graph (V, E) , where E is obtained by

removing e form E.
Connected graph
DEFINITION :: Connectedness
DEFINITION :: Connected Graph
For example, any two computers in a network can communicate if and

only if the graph of this network is connected.
Note: A graph consisting of only one vertex is always connected, because it does
not contain any pair of distinct vertices.
Connected graph
Example: Are the following graphs connected?
a b a
b
e e
d
d c
c
Yes. No.
a b a
b
e d e
c
d f
c No.
Yes.
44
Some Theorem
Theorem:
A graph is disconnected if and only if its vertex set V can be partitioned into two
nonempty, disjoint subsets V1 and V2 such that there exists no edge in G whose one end
vertex is in subset V1 and the other in subset V2.
Proof:
Suppose that such a partition exists.
Consider two arbitrary vertices a and b of G, such that a V1 and b V2. No path can
exist between vertices a and b; otherwise there would be at least one edge whose one end
vertex would be in V1 and the other in V2. hence, if a partition exists, G is not connected.
Conversely, let G be a disconnected graph.

Consider a vertex a in G. Let V1 be the set of all vertices that are joined by paths to a.
Since G is disconnected V1 does not include all vertices of G. The remaining vertices will
form a (nonempty) set V2. So no vertex in V1 is joined to any in V2 by an edge. Hence the
partition.
Component
DEFINITION :: Component
Connected graph
Theorem: If a graph (connected or disconnected) has only two
odd vertices v1 and v2, then there is a path between v1 and v2.
Proof:
Case 1: G is connected. It is obvious that there is a path
between v1 and v2.
Case 2: G has two or more connected components. For each

of these connected components the theorem which states that
number of odd vertices in a graph is always even is applicable.
As there are only two odd vertices so, v1 and v2 must belong
to the same component. Otherwise the above stated theorem
would be violated. (Proved)
Connected graph
Theorem: If a graph has n vertices & k components then it can
have a maximum of (n-k)(n-k+1)/2 edges.
Proof:
If ni (>= 1) is the number of vertices for the i-th component of the
graph,
Then we have n1+n2+.+nk = n for the k component of the graph.
Now maximum number of edges of a component I = ni(ni-1)/2.
Again maximum number of edges n of G = ( ni2 ni) =
ni2 ni
Now =1( 1) =
2
Taking square at both sides we have ( =1( 1)) = ( )2

Equating both sides we can obtain (n-k)(n-k+1)/2 edges.
DEFINITION :: Distance
Euler graph
Euler line and Euler graph
If some closed walk in a graph contains all the
edges of the graph, then the walk is called an Euler
line and the graph an Euler graph.
Theorem: A graph is bipartite if and only if it does not contain any cycle of odd
length.
Proof:
() If G is bipartite with bipartition X,Y of the vertices, then
any cycle C has vertices that must alternatively be in X and Y.
Thus, since a cycle is closed, C must have an even number of
vertices and hence is an even cycle.
() First, we prove the result in the case where G is connected.

Assume G has no odd cycle. Let u V(G) be an arbitrary vertex.
Partition all other vertices based on the parity of distance (even or
odd) from u. That is, let
X={v V(G): d(u,v) is even}
Y={v V(G): d(u,v) is odd}
Clearly X Y = null and X UY=V(G) since G is connected.
Proof continued.
We claim that X,Y is a bipartition of G.
Suppose not
then there exists an edge incident to two vertices of X or an edge
incident to two vertices of Y. Without loss of generality, assume the
former.
Let x1,x2 X and edge x1x2 exists. It follows that
x1 X there exists u, x1-path P1 of even length
x2 X there exists u, x2-path P2 of even length
Concatenate u, x1-path P1, the edge x1x2 and the x2, u-path P2 to
obtain a closed odd walk.
Hence it will contains a odd cycle. This is contradicting with the
assumption.
Hence, it must be the case the X,Y is a valid bipartition, so G is
bipartite.
Matrix Representation of a Graph
Adjacency Matrix:
Let G be a graph with n vertices, where n>0.
Let V(G) = {v1, v2, v3, , vn}.
The adjacency matrix AG of G is an nxn matrix [aij] such that the (i, j) ths
entry of AG is the number of edges from vi to vj.

i.e. =
0
Because aij is the number of edges from vi to vj, the adjacency matrix AG is a square
matrix over the set of non-negative integers.
0 1 0 1
Example: v2 1 0 1 0
e6 1 = 0 1 1 1
v2
e1 1 0 1 0
e2
e1
e2
v1 v3
v1 v3 e7 e5
0 1 0 2
e5 e4 e3 1 0 2 0
e4 e3 2 = 0 2 1 1
v4 2 0 1 0
v4 G1 G2
Properties of Adjacency matrix
The Adjacency matrix AG of a graph has the
following property
1. AG is a symmetric matrix
2. If G does not contain any loops and parallel
edges then each element of AG is either 0 or 1
3. If G does not contain any loops, then all of the
diagonal elements of AG are 0.
Matrix Representation of a Graph
Incidence matrix
The all-vertex incidence matrix of a non-empty and loopless graph
G=(V, E) is an nxm matrix [aij], where n is the number of vertices
in G and m is the number of edges of G and

=

Properties of Adjacency matrix
The incidence matrix AG of a graph has the
following property
Since an edge is incident on two vertices, each column of A
will have exactly two 1s and rest are 0s.
If any row has all entries as 0, then no edge is incident on
that vertex, hence it is an isolated vertex.
The number of 1s is a row indicates the degree od the
corresponding vertex.
Cut-edge, Cut Vertex
A cut-edge or cut-vertex of a graph is an edge
or vertex whose deletion increases the number
of components
Cut-edge Not a Cut-vertex
Cut-edge
Cut-vertex
G-e or G-M : The subgraph obtained by
deleting an edge e or set of edges M
G-v or G-S : The subgraph obtained by deleting
a vertex v or set of vertices S
G G-e
e
Theorem: An edge e is a cut-edge if and only if e
belongs to no cycles.
Proof :
Let e= (x, y) be an edge in a graph G and H be the
component containing e.
Since deletion of e effects no other component, it
suffices to prove that H-e is connected if and only if e
belongs to a cycle.
First suppose that H-e is connected.
This implies that H-e contains an x, y-path,
This path completes a cycle with e.
Proof :2/2
Now suppose that e lies in a cycle C.
Choose u, vV(H)
Since H is connected, H has a u, v-path P
If P does not contain e
Then P exists in H-e
Otherwise (P contains e)
Suppose by symmetry that x is between u and y on P
Since H-e contains a u, x-path along P, the
transitivity of the connection relation implies that H-e has a
u, v-path
We did this for all u, v V(H), so H-e is connected.
An Example:
x e y
u v
P
Eulerian Circuits
A graph is Eulerian if it has a closed trail
containing all edges.
We call a closed trail a circuit when we do not
specify the first vertex but keep the list in
cyclic order.
An Eulerian circuit or Eulerian trail in a
graph is a circuit or trail containing all the
edges.
Even Graph, Even Vertex
An even graph is a graph with vertex degrees

all even.
A vertex is odd [even] when its degree is odd
[even].
Maximal Path
A maximal path in a graph G is a path P in G

that is not contained in a longer path.
When a graph is finite, no path can extend forever ,
so maximal (non-extendible) paths exist.
Lemma: If every vertex of graph G has degree at
least 2, then G contains a cycle.
Proof:
Let P be a maximal path in G, and let u be an endpoint of P
Since P cannot be extended, every neighbor of u must already be a
vertex of P
Since u has degree at least 2, it has a neighbor v in V (P ) via an
edge not in P
The edge uv completes a cycle with the portion of P from v to u
Must
P u
v
u
P
Impossible
Theorem: A graph G is Eulerian if and only if it has at most one
nontrivial component and its vertices all have even degree.
Proof: (Necessity)
Suppose that G has an Eulerian circuit C
Each passage of C through a vertex uses two incident
edges
And the first edge is paired with the last at the first vertex
Hence every vertex has even degree
Start (The 1st)

In
Out
End (The last)
nontrivial component and its vertices all have even degree.
Proof: (Necessity)
Assume that all vertices of G are of even degree.
Now we can construct a walk starting at an arbitrary vertex v and going
through the edges of G such that no edge is traced more than once.
We continue tracing as far as possible. Since every vertex is of even degree,
we can exit from every vertex we enter; the tracing can cannot stop at any
vertex but v.
Since v is also of even degree, we shall eventually reach v when the tracing
comes to an end.
If this closed walk h we just traced includes all the edges of G, G is an
Euler graph.
If not, we remove from G all the edges in h and obtain a sub-graph h of G
formed by the remaining edges.
nontrivial component and its vertices all have even degree
Proof:
Since both G and h have all their vertices of even degree,
degree of vertices of h is also even. Moreover, h must touch
h at least at one vertex a, because G is connected.
Starting from a, we can construct a new walk in h. Since.
All the vertices of h are of even degree, this walk in h must
terminate at vertex a. but this walk in h can not be combined
with h to form a new walk, which starts and ends at vertex v
and has more edges than h.
This process can not be repeated until we obtain a closed
walk that traverses all the edges of G.
Thus G is an Euler graph.
Hamiltonian Circuit
A Hamilton circuit in a graph is a circuit that
visits each vertex exactly once (returning to
the starting vertex to complete the circuit).
Example: Identifying Hamilton Circuits
Refer to the graph below. Which of the following are Hamilton circuits?
a) A B E D C F A
b) A B C D E F C
EBFA
c) B C D E F B
B C D
A
F E
Example: Identifying Hamilton Circuits
Solution
a) It is a Hamilton circuit for the graph.
b) It is not a Hamilton circuit since it visits B
more than once.
c) It is not a Hamilton circuit since it does not
visit all the vertices.
Hamiltonian Path
If we remove any one edge from a
Hamiltonian circuit, we are left with a path.
This path is called a Hamiltonian path. .
Clearly, a Hamiltonian path in a graph G
traverses every vertex of G.
Since a Hamiltonian path is a sub-graph of a
Hamiltonian circuit, every graph that has a
Hamiltonian circuit also has a Hamiltonian
path.
Hamiltonian Circuits
There are, however, many graphs with
Hamiltonian paths that have no Hamiltonian
circuits.
The length of a Hamiltonian path (if there
exists) in a connected graph of n vertices is (n-
1).
Graph with no Hamiltonian

Circuits
Hamiltonian Circuits
A given graph may contain more than one
Hamiltonian circuit.
The determination of the exact number of
edge-disjoint Hamiltonian circuits in a graph in
general is a unsolved problem.
However, Hamiltonian circuits in a complete
graph with odd number of vertices (n>=3)
are (n-1)/2.
Planar Graphs
The plane representations of graphs are by no
means unique
- Can be drawn in many ways
75
Planar Graphs
Properties of a graph are not necessarily
immediate from one representation, but may be
apparent from another.
However, important families of graphs, the

surface graphs, that rely on the (topological or
geometrical) properties of the drawings of the
graph.
We will discuss here only about the planar

graphs.
76
Planar Graphs
A planar graph will be a graph that
can be drawn in the plane so that no two edges
intersect with each other.
a
a
e
c b
b
d
d e c
77
Applications of planar graphs
Planar graphs are extensively used in Electrical, Mechanical
and Civil Engineering.
Easy to visualize, in fact, choosing of edges is the main

culprit for reducing comprehensibility.
VLSI design, circuit needs to be on surface; lesser the
crossings, better is the design.
High speed highways/railways design, crossings are
always problematic.
Irrigation canals, crossing simply not admissible.
Most of facility location problems on maps are actually
problems of planar graphs.
78
What are planar graph- drawings?
Definition :
Given a graph G= (V,E), a drawing maps
each vertex v V to a distinct point (v) in
plane, and each edge e E, e= (u,v) to a simple
open Jordan curve (u,v) with end points (u),
(v).
79
Problem definition: Planar Embedding
Problem (Computation problem):

Given a graph G=(V,E), if G is planar, how
can G be drawn in the plane such that there are no
edge crossings.
- i.e. compute a planar representation of
the graph G.
- But for this, it is required to know
whether a graph is planar or not, which is called
planarity testing.
80
Problem (Decision problem)
Given a graph G= (V,E), is G planar?
- i.e. can G be drawn in the plane
without edge crossing?
- planarity of K4
yes, K4 is planar 1
1
2 3
2 4
4 3
Graph K4 81
K5 and K3,3
Question: Are the following graphs planar?
No, they are not. There always will be at least one
crossing.
- can be proved by Eulers celebraed
theorem
1 2
1 3
5
2
1 2 3
3
4
82
K5 and K3,3
Question: Are the following graphs
planar?
1 2
1 3
5
2
1 2 3
3
4
83
Is the following graph planar?
There are so many crossings: O(n2)

84
Is the following graph planar?
- Yes it is
- But how to arrive at the answer?? 85
Basic assumptions
We assume that our graphs are connected and
there are no self loops and no-multi edges.
Disconnected graph, 1- degree vertices, multi-

edges can be easily dealt with.
86
More definitions
Definition: Subdivision of a graph
An edge e = (u,v) G is subdivided, when it is replaced by a
path u x v of length two by introducing a new vertex x.
A subdivision H of a graph G is obtained from G by a sequence

of subdivisions.
- It can be shown that a graph is planar if and only if its

subdivisions are planar.
87
Geometric properties
Let F be an open set of this plane R R, that is, every
point x F has a disk centered at x and contained in F.
Region:
F is a region, if any two points x, y F can be
joined by a continuous curve the points of which are
all in F.
Boundary:
The boundary of a region is consists of
those points for which every neighborhood contains
points from F and its complement.
88
Faces
Let G be a planar graph, and P(G) one of its
plane embeddings.
Regard now each edge e = (u,v) G as a line
from u to v.
The set (R R)\EG is open and it is divided into
a finite no. of disjoint regions, called faces of
P(G).
89
Interior faces:
A face of P(G) is an interior face, if it is
bounded.
Exterior faces:
The (unique) face that is unbounded is called the
exterior face of P(G).
The edges that surrounded a face F, constitute this
boundary of F.
Exterior boundary: Boundary of exterior face
- vertices on exterior boundary are called
exterior vertices of exterior edge.
- vertices that not on the exterior boundary are
interior vertices.
90
Properties
Embedding P(G) satisfy following properties:
Two different faces F1 and F2 are disjoint and their
boundaries can intersect only on edges.
P(G) has a unique exterior faces.
Each edge e belongs to this boundary of at most two
faces.
Each cycle of G surrounds at least one internal face of
P(G).
A bridge of G belongs to this boundary of only one face.
An edge that is not a bridge belongs to the boundary of
exactly two faces.
91
Eulers Formula
Lemma 1: A plane embedding P(G) of a planar graph
G has no interior faces if and only if G is acyclic,
that is, if and only if the connected components of G
are trees.
- follows from the geometric properties
Lemma 2: (Eulers formula) proved by Legendre
(1974)
Let G be a connected planar graph and let be any of
its plane embeddings. Then,
v e + f = 2, where f is the no. of faces of P(G)
92
Proof
It can be proved by the method of induction on no.
of faces f of a plane embedding P(G).
Note that f 1, since each P(G) has an exterior
face.
If f = 1, then here are no cycles in G, and since G is
connected, it is a face.
Hence, e = v 1.
Assume that the claim is true for all plane embeddings

with less than f faces for f 2.
Let e G be an edge that is not a bridge.

93
Proof Continued...
The sub graph G - e is planar with a plane embedding
P(G - e) = P(G) - e obtained by simply erasing the edge e.
Now P(G - e) has (f 1) faces, since the two faces of
P(G) that are separated by e are merged into one face of
P(G - e).
By the induction hypothesis,
vG-e - eG-e + (fG - 1) = 2 and the claim follows:
Corollary: Let G be a planar graph. Then every plane

embedding of G has the same no. of faces.
fG = e G - v G + 2
94
Maximum planar graphs
Lemma:
If G is a planar graph of order vG 3, then
eG 3vG 6
Moreover, if G has no triangles C3, then eG 2vG 4.
Proof:
Let v be the no. of regions of G.
Now if the
For graph G with f faces, it follows from the fact
that, 2eG 3fG ........ (A)
95
Maximum planar graphs
Each face for embedding P(G) contains at least three edges on its
boundary .
Hence, 3fG 2eG, since each edge lies on at most two faces.
So from (A),
3fG 2eG
=> fG 2/3 eG
Now combining this with Eulers formula,
vG eG + fG = 2
=> fG = 2 + eG vG
=> eG vG + 2 = fG 2/3 eG
=> 3eG 3vG + 6 2eG
=> eG 3vG 6
Example: k5, vG = 5, eG = 10
Now 10 3x5 6 is contradicting. So it is non- planar.
96
Corollary: Let G be a connected planar graph with
vG vertices and eG edges, and no triangles. Then
eG 2vG 4.
Proof: For graph G with fG faces, it follows that a
face with triangle requires at least 4 edges.
Hence, 4fG 2eG
=> fG eG
combining this with Eulers formula
we have, vG eG + fG = 2
=> eG vG + 2 = fG eG
=> eG 2vG - 4
97
Example: K3,3
6 vertices and 9 edges and no triangles.
Now 9 12 4 8 contradicting.
So it is non- planar.
Corollary: There are only 5 regular convex

polyhedron.
98
Graph Traversal
Graph Searching Algorithms
Searching a graph
Symmetrically following the edges of the graph so
as to visit all the vertices.
Breadth-first search
Depth-first search
Topological sort (of a directed acyclic
graph):
It is a linear ordering of all the vertices such that if
(u,v) is a directed edge, then u appears before v in
the ordering.
Breadth-first search : Idea
Graph G=(V, E), directed or undirected with adjacency list
representation.
GOAL: Systematically explores edges of G to
Discover every vertex reachable from the source vertex s
Compute the shortest path distance of every vertex from the
source vertex s
Produce a breadth-first tree (BFT) GH with root s
BFT contains all vertices reachable from s
The unique path from any vertex v to s in GH constitutes a shortest
path from s to v in G
IDEA: Expanding frontier across the breadth greedy
Propagate a wave 1 edge-distance at a time
Using a FIFO queue : O(1) time to update pointers to both ends.
Breadth-first search: Key
components
Maintains the following fields for each u V
Color[u]: color of u
WHITE: not discovered yet
GRAY: discovered and not to be or being processed
BLACK: discovered and processed
H[u]: parent of u (NIL if u=s or u is not
discovered yet)
d[u]: distance of u from s
Processing a vertex = scanning its adjacency list

Breadth-first search: Algorithm
BFS (G, s)
for each u V do
color[u] WHITE
H[u] NIL; d[u]
color[s] GRAY
H[s] NIL; d[s]0;
Q{s}
while (Q != NULL) do
uhead[Q]
for each v in Adj[u] do
if color[v]= WHITE then
color[v] GRAY
H[v]u
d[v]d[u] +1
ENQUEUE(Q, v)
DEQUEUE(Q)
color[u]BLACK
Breadth-first search : Example
Sample graph: FIFO Just after
Queue Q Processing vertex
s
{a} --
0
a d
b e
i
f
g h
FIFO Just after
s
{a} --
a 0 d {a, b, c} a
1
c
1
b e
i
f
g h
FIFO Just after
s
{a} --
a 0 d {a, b, c} a
{a, b, c, f} b
1
c
1
b e
2
i
f
g h
FIFO Just after
s
{a} --
0 d {a, b, c} a
a
1 {a, b, c, f} b
{a, b, c, f, e} c
c
1 2
b e
2
i
f
g h
FIFO Just after
s
{a} --
0 d {a, b, c} a
a {a, b, c, f} b
1
{a, b, c, f, e} c
c {a, b, c, f, e, g, h} f
1 2
b e
2
3 i
f 3
g h
FIFO Just after
s
{a} --
3 d {a, b, c} a
a 0
1 {a, b, c, f} b
{a, b, c, f, e} c
c {a, b, c, f, e, g, h} f
1 2 {a, b, c, f, e, g, h, d, i} e
b e
2 All distances
i are filled in
3 f 3 after
3 processing e
g h
FIFO Just after
s
{a} --
3 d {a, b, c} a
a 0
1 {a, b, c, f} b
{a, b, c, f, e} c
c {a, b, c, f, e, g, h} f
2 {a, b, c, f, e, g, h, d, i} g
1
b e
2
3 i
3 f
3
g h
FIFO Just after
s
{a} --
0 3 d {a, b, c} a
a {a, b, c, f} b
1
{a, b, c, f, e} c
c {a, b, c, f, e, g, h} f
1 {a, b, c, f, e, g, h, d, i} h
2
b e
2
3 i
3 f
3
g h
FIFO Just after
s
3 {a} --
a 0 d {a, b, c} a
{a, b, c, f} b
1
{a, b, c, f, e} c
c {a, b, c, f, e, g, h} f
{a, b, c, f, e, g, h, d, i} d
1 2
b e
2
f 3 i
3 3
g h
FIFO Just after
s
{a} --
0 3 d {a, b, c} a
a {a, b, c, f} b
1
{a, b, c, f, e} c
c {a, b, c, f, e, g, h} f
1 2 {a, b, c, f, e, g, h, d, i} i
b e
2 Algorithm terminates :
All vertices are processed.
3 i
3 f
3
g h
Breadth-first Search: Analysis
Running time: O(V+E) = considered linear
time in graphs
Initialization: O(V)
Queue operations: O(V)
Each vertex enqueued and dequeued at most once
Both enqueue and dequeue operations take O(1) time
Processing gray vertices: O(E)
Each vertex is processed at most once and
= ()
Breadth-first search: The paths to the
root
BFT(G,s), where VH={vV:H(v) NIL} {s}
and EH={(H[v], v) E: v VH {s}}
is a breadth first tree such that
VH consists of all vertices in V that are reachable
from s
For all v VH, unique path p(v,s) in GH constitutes
a sp(s,v) in G
Breadth-first Tree: The BFS tree
s
a 0 3d
s 1
3 d c
0 1
a 2
1 b e
c 2
i
1 2 f 3
3 3
b e g h
2
3 i
3 f
3
g h
Depth-first search: Idea
Graph G=(V,E) directed or undirected
Adjacency list representation
Goal: Systematically explore every vertex and
every edge
Idea: Search deeper whenever possible
Using a LIFO queue (Stack; FIFO queue used in
BFS)
Depth-first search: Key components
Maintains several field for each v V
Like BFS, colors the vertices to indicate their
states. Each vertex is
Initially white
Grayed when discovered
Blacked when finished
Like BFS, records discovery of a white v
during scanning Adj[u] by H[v] u
Unlike BFS, predecessor graph GH produced
by DFS forms spanning forest
GH= (V,EH) where
EH={(H[v],v): v V and H[v] != NIL}
GH = depth-first forest(DFF) is composed of
disjoint depth-first trees (DFTs)
DFS also timestamps each vertex with two
timestamps
d[v] : records when v is first discovered and
grayed
f[v]: records when v is finished and blackened
Since there is only one discovery event and
finishing event for each vertex we have
1<=d[v] <f[v]<=2|V|
Depth-first search: Algorithm
DFS-VISIT(G, u)
DFS(G) color[u] gray
for each u V do
d[u] time time+1
color[u] white for each v Adj[u] do
H[u] NIL if color[v]= white then
time 0 H[v] u
for each u V do DFS-VISIT(G,v)
if color[u]= white
then color[u] black
DFS-VISIT(G,u) f[u] time time +1
Depth-first search: Analysis
Running time: O(V+E)
Initialization loop in DFS: O(V)
Main loop in DFS: O(V) exclusive of time to execute
calls to DFS-VISIT
DFS-VISIT is called exactly once for each v V since
DFS-VISIT is invoked only on white vertices and
DFS-VISIT(G,u) immediately colors u as gray
For loop of DFS-VISIT(G, u) is executed |Adj[u]|
time
Since sum |Adj[u]| = E, total cost of executing loop of
DFS-VISIT is O(E).
Depth-first search: Example
x y z
s t
w v u
x y z
1
s t
w v u
x y z
1
s t
w v u
x y z
1
s t
w v u
x y z
1
s t
w v u
x y z
1
s t
3 4
w v u
x y z
1
s t
3 4 5
w v u
x y z
1
s t
3 4 5 6
w v u
x y z
1
s t
2 7
3 4 5 6
w v u
x y z
1 8
s t
2 7
3 4 5 6
w v u
x y z
1 8
s t
2 7
3 4 5 6
w v u
x y z
1 8
s t
2 7 9
3 4 5 6
w v u
x y z
1 8
s t
2 7 9
3 4 5 6
w v u
x y z
1 8
s t
2 7 9 10
3 4 5 6
w v u
x y z
1 8 11
s t
2 7 9 10
3 4 5 6
w v u
x y z
1 12 8 11
s t
2 7 9 10
3 4 5 6
w v u
x y z
1 12 8 11 13
s t
2 7 9 10
3 4 5 6
w v u
x y z
1 12 8 11 13
s t
2 7 9 10
3 4 5 6
w v u
x y z
1 12 8 11 13
s t
2 7 9 10
3 4 5 6
w v u
x y z
1 12 8 11 13
s t
2 7 9 10
3 4 5 6 14
w v u
x y z
1 12 8 11 13
s t
2 7 9 10
3 4 5 6 14
w v u
x y z
1 12 8 11 13
s t
2 7 9 10
3 4 5 6 14 15
w v u
x y z
1 12 8 11 13 16
s t
2 7 9 10
3 4 5 6 14 15
w v u
Depth-first search: DFT and DFF
x y z
1 12 8 11 13 16
s t
2 7 9 10
3 4 5 6 14 15
w v u
y z
1 12 8 11 13 16
x t
s
2 7 9 10
3 4 5 6 14 15
w v u
Graph Coloring
Basics
Assignment of "colors" to certain objects in
a graph subject to certain constraints
Vertex coloring (the default)
Edge coloring
Face coloring (planar)
Not Graph Labeling
Graph coloring
Just markers to keep track of adjacency or
incidence
Graph labeling
Calculable problems that satisfy a numerical
condition
Vertex coloring
In its simplest form, it is a way of coloring
the vertices of a graph such that no two
adjacent vertices share the same color
Edge and Face coloring can be transformed
into Vertex version
Vertex Color example
Anything less results in adjacent vertices
with the same color
Known as proper
3-color example
Vertex coloring
A k-coloring of a graph G is a labeling f:
V(G) S, where |S| = k (often we use S =
[k]). The labels are colors; the vertices of
one color form a color class.
A k-coloring is proper if adjacent vertices
have different labels.
A graph is k-colorable if it has a proper k-
coloring. The chromatic number (G) is
the least k such that G is k-colorable.
k-chromatic
A graph G is k-chromatic if (G) =k.
A proper k-coloring of a k-chromatic graph
is an optimal coloring.
If (H) < (G) = k for every proper
subgraph H of G, then G is color-critical or
k-critical.
Chromatic number of a complete graph:
(G) = n
Spanning Trees
Definition:
A tree T is said to be a spanning tree of a
connected graph G if T is a subgraph of G and T
contains all the vertices of G.
6 4
5 9
14 2
10
15
3 8
Spanning Tree
Since the vertices of G are barely hanging
together is a panning tree, it is a sort of skeleton
of the original graph G.
This is why a spanning tree is sometimes refereed
to as a skeleton or scaffolding of G.
Since spanning trees are the largest (with
maximum number of edges) trees among all trees
in G. it is also quite appropriate to call a spanning
tree a maximal tree subgraph or maximal tree of
G.
Spanning Tree
Theorem:
Every connected graph has at least one spanning
tree.
Theorem:
With respect to any of its spanning trees, a connected
graph of n vertices and e edges has (n-1) tree
branches and (e-n+1) chords.
Finding a spanning tree
To find a spanning tree of a graph,
pick an initial node and call it part of the spanning tree
do a search from the initial node:
each time you find a node that is not in the spanning tree, add to the spanning tree both
the new node and the edge you followed to get to it
An undirected graph One possible One possible

result of a BFS result of a DFS
starting from top starting from top 157
Minimizing costs
Suppose you want to supply a set of houses (say, in a
new subdivision) with:
electric power
water
sewage lines
telephone lines
To keep costs down, you could connect these houses
with a spanning tree (of, for example, power lines)
However, the houses are not all equal distances apart
To reduce costs even further, you could connect the
houses with a minimum-cost spanning tree
158
Minimum-cost spanning trees
Suppose you have a connected undirected graph with a weight (or
cost) associated with each edge
The cost of a spanning tree would be the sum of the costs of its
edges
A minimum-cost spanning tree is a spanning tree that has the
lowest cost
16 16
A B A B
21 11 6 11 6
19 5 5
F C F C
33 14
10
E 18 D E 18 D
A connected, undirected graph A minimum-cost spanning tree
159
Finding spanning trees
There are two basic algorithms for finding minimum-cost
spanning trees, and both are greedy algorithms
Kruskals algorithm: Start with no nodes or edges in the

spanning tree, and repeatedly add the cheapest edge that does
not create a cycle
Here, we consider the spanning tree to consist of edges only
Prims algorithm: Start with any one node in the spanning tree,
and repeatedly add the cheapest edge, and the node it leads to,
for which the node is not already in the spanning tree.
Here, we consider the spanning tree to consist of both nodes and edges
160
Kruskals Algorithm
Kruskal()
{
T = ;
for each v V
MakeSet(v);
sort E by increasing edge weight w
for each (u,v) E (in sorted order)
if FindSet(u) FindSet(v)
T = T U {{u,v}};
Union(FindSet(u), FindSet(v));
}
Kruskals Algorithm
Run the algorithm:
Kruskal() 2 19
{ 9
T = ; 14 17
8 25
for each v V 5
MakeSet(v); 21 13 1
T = T U {{u,v}};
}
Kruskals Algorithm
Run the algorithm:
Kruskal() 2 19
{ 9
T = ; 14 17
8 25
for each v V 5
MakeSet(v); 21 13 1
T = T U U {{u,v}};
}
Kruskals Algorithm
Run the algorithm:
Kruskal() 2 19
{ 9
T = ; 14 17
8 25
for each v V 5
MakeSet(v); 21 13 1
T = T U {{u,v}};
}
Kruskals Algorithm
Run the algorithm:
Kruskal() 2 19
{ 9
T = ; 14 17
8 25
for each v V 5
MakeSet(v); 21 13 1?
T = T U U {{u,v}};
}
Kruskals Algorithm
Run the algorithm:
Kruskal() 2 19
{ 9
T = ; 14 17
8 25
for each v V 5
MakeSet(v); 21 13 1
T = T U {{u,v}};
}
Kruskals Algorithm
Run the algorithm:
Kruskal() 2? 19
{ 9
T = ; 14 17
8 25
for each v V 5
MakeSet(v); 21 13 1
T = T U {{u,v}};
}
Kruskals Algorithm
Run the algorithm:
Kruskal() 2 19
{ 9
T = ; 14 17
8 25
for each v V 5
MakeSet(v); 21 13 1
T = T U {{u,v}};
}
Kruskals Algorithm
Run the algorithm:
Kruskal() 2 19
{ 9
T = ; 14 17
8 25
for each v V 5?
MakeSet(v); 21 13 1
T = T U {{u,v}};
}
Kruskals Algorithm
Run the algorithm:
Kruskal() 2 19
{ 9
T = ; 14 17
8 25
for each v V 5
MakeSet(v); 21 13 1
T = T U {{u,v}};
}
Kruskals Algorithm
Run the algorithm:
Kruskal() 2 19
{ 9
T = ; 14 17
8? 25
for each v V 5
MakeSet(v); 21 13 1
T = T U {{u,v}};
}
Kruskals Algorithm
Run the algorithm:
Kruskal() 2 19
{ 9
T = ; 14 17
8 25
for each v V 5
MakeSet(v); 21 13 1
T = T U {{u,v}};
}
Kruskals Algorithm
Run the algorithm:
Kruskal() 2 19
{ 9?
T = ; 14 17
8 25
for each v V 5
MakeSet(v); 21 13 1
T = T U {{u,v}};
}
Kruskals Algorithm
Run the algorithm:
Kruskal() 2 19
{ 9
T = ; 14 17
8 25
for each v V 5
MakeSet(v); 21 13 1
T = T U {{u,v}};
}
Kruskals Algorithm
Run the algorithm:
Kruskal() 2 19
{ 9
T = ; 14 17
8 25
for each v V 5
MakeSet(v); 21 13? 1
T = T U {{u,v}};
}
Kruskals Algorithm
Run the algorithm:
Kruskal() 2 19
{ 9
T = ; 14 17
8 25
for each v V 5
MakeSet(v); 21 13 1
T = T U {{u,v}};
}
Kruskals Algorithm
Run the algorithm:
Kruskal() 2 19
{ 9
T = ; 14? 17
8 25
for each v V 5
MakeSet(v); 21 13 1
T = T U {{u,v}};
}
Kruskals Algorithm
Run the algorithm:
Kruskal() 2 19
{ 9
T = ; 14 17
8 25
for each v V 5
MakeSet(v); 21 13 1
T = T U {{u,v}};
}
Kruskals Algorithm
Run the algorithm:
Kruskal() 2 19
{ 9
T = ; 14 17?
8 25
for each v V 5
MakeSet(v); 21 13 1
T = T U {{u,v}};
}
Kruskals Algorithm
Run the algorithm:
Kruskal() 2 19?
{ 9
T = ; 14 17
8 25
for each v V 5
MakeSet(v); 21 13 1
T = T U {{u,v}};
}
Kruskals Algorithm
Run the algorithm:
Kruskal() 2 19
{ 9
T = ; 14 17
8 25
for each v V 5
MakeSet(v); 21? 13 1
T = T U {{u,v}};
}
Kruskals Algorithm
Run the algorithm:
Kruskal() 2 19
{ 9
T = ; 14 17
8 25?
for each v V 5
MakeSet(v); 21 13 1
T = T U {{u,v}};
}
Kruskals Algorithm
Run the algorithm:
Kruskal() 2 19
{ 9
T = ; 14 17
8 25
for each v V 5
MakeSet(v); 21 13 1
T = T U {{u,v}};
}
Kruskals Algorithm
Run the algorithm:
Kruskal() 2 19
{ 9
T = ; 14 17
8 25
for each v V 5
MakeSet(v); 21 13 1
T = T {{u,v}};
}
Prims algorithm
T = a spanning tree containing a single node s;
E = set of edges adjacent to s;
while T does not contain all the nodes {
remove an edge (v, w) of lowest cost from E
if w is already in T then discard edge (v, w)
else {
add edge (v, w) and node w to T
add to E the edges adjacent to w
}
}
An edge of lowest cost can be found with a priority queue
Testing for a cycle is automatic
Hence, Prims algorithm is far simpler to implement than Kruskals
algorithm
185
Walk-Through
2
Initialize array
3
10
F C K dv pv
A 7
4
3 A F
8 B F
18
4
9
B D C F
10
H 25 D F
2
3 E F
G 7
E F F
G F
H F
2
Start with any node, say D
3
10
F C K dv pv
A 7
4
3 A
8
18 B
4
9
B D C
10
H 25 D T 0
2
3 E
G 7
E F
G
H
2 Update distances of
adjacent, unselected nodes
3
10
F C K dv pv
A 7
4
3 A
8
18 B
4
9
B D C 3 D
10
H 25 D T 0
2
3 E 25 D
G 7
E F 18 D
G 2 D
H
2 Select node with minimum
distance
3
10
F C K dv pv
A 7
4
3 A
8
18 B
4
9
B D C 3 D
10
H 25 D T 0
2
3 E 25 D
G 7
E F 18 D
G T 2 D
H
3
10
F C K dv pv
A 7
4
3 A
8
18 B
4
9
B D C 3 D
10
H 25 D T 0
2
3 E 7 G
G 7
E F 18 D
G T 2 D
H 3 G
distance
3
10
F C K dv pv
A 7
4
3 A
8
18 B
4
9
B D C T 3 D
10
H 25 D T 0
2
3 E 7 G
G 7
E F 18 D
G T 2 D
H 3 G
3
10
F C K dv pv
A 7
4
3 A
8
18 B 4 C
4
9
B D C T 3 D
10
H 25 D T 0
2
3 E 7 G
G 7
E F 3 C
G T 2 D
H 3 G
distance
3
10
F C K dv pv
A 7
4
3 A
8
18 B 4 C
4
9
B D C T 3 D
10
H 25 D T 0
2
3 E 7 G
G 7
E F T 3 C
G T 2 D
H 3 G
3
10
F C K dv pv
A 7
4
3 A 10 F
8
18 B 4 C
4
9
B D C T 3 D
10
H 25 D T 0
2
3 E 2 F
G 7
E F T 3 C
G T 2 D
H 3 G
distance
3
10
F C K dv pv
A 7
4
3 A 10 F
8
18 B 4 C
4
9
B D C T 3 D
10
H 25 D T 0
2
3 E T 2 F
G 7
E F T 3 C
G T 2 D
H 3 G
3
10
F C K dv pv
A 7
4
3 A 10 F
8
18 B 4 C
4
9
B D C T 3 D
10
H 25 D T 0
2
3 E T 2 F
G 7
E F T 3 C
G T 2 D
H 3 G
Table entries unchanged
distance
3
10
F C K dv pv
A 7
4
3 A 10 F
8
18 B 4 C
4
9
B D C T 3 D
10
H 25 D T 0
2
3 E T 2 F
G 7
E F T 3 C
G T 2 D
H T 3 G
3
10
F C K dv pv
A 7
4
3 A 4 H
8
18 B 4 C
4
9
B D C T 3 D
10
H 25 D T 0
2
3 E T 2 F
G 7
E F T 3 C
G T 2 D
H T 3 G
distance
3
10
F C K dv pv
A 7
4
3 A T 4 H
8
18 B 4 C
4
9
B D C T 3 D
10
H 25 D T 0
2
3 E T 2 F
G 7
E F T 3 C
G T 2 D
H T 3 G
3
10
F C K dv pv
A 7
4
3 A T 4 H
8
18 B 4 C
4
9
B D C T 3 D
10
H 25 D T 0
2
3 E T 2 F
G 7
E F T 3 C
G T 2 D
H T 3 G
Table entries unchanged
distance
3
10
F C K dv pv
A 7
4
3 A T 4 H
8
18 B T 4 C
4
9
B D C T 3 D
10
H 25 D T 0
2
3 E T 2 F
G 7
E F T 3 C
G T 2 D
H T 3 G
2 Cost of Minimum Spanning
Tree = dv = 21
3
F C K dv pv
A 4
3 A T 4 H
B T 4 C
4
B D C T 3 D
H D T 0
2
3 E T 2 F
G E F T 3 C
G T 2 D
H T 3 G
Done

Graph - Chandan

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Graph Theory

Leonhard Euler's paper on

The traveling salesman problem

In 1852 Francis Guthrie posed the four color problem

This problem, which was only solved a century later in

Cost of wiring electronic components

DEFINITION :: Degree or valency of a vertex

Let G be a graph and v be a vertex in G.

Let n1, n2, n3, , nk be the degrees of vertices of a graph G such

Corollary: In a graph G, the number of odd degree vertices is even.

A graph is called a simple graph if G does not contain any parallel

Prove by your own

It is also true that n1

v1 No, because there is no way to partition

A complete bipartite graph on m and n vertices is denoted by Km,n

A complete sub-graph of G is called a clique.

Walks Repetition Allowed Repetition Allowed

Trails Repetition Allowed No Repetition of

Theorem: Every circuit contains a sub-walk that is a cycle.

DEFINITION ::Removal of a edge

If e is an edge of the graph G = (V, E) then G e is graph (V, E) , where E is obtained by

DEFINITION :: Connected Graph

For example, any two computers in a network can communicate if and

Conversely, let G be a disconnected graph.

Case 2: G has two or more connected components. For each

() First, we prove the result in the case where G is connected.

Cut-edge Not a Cut-vertex

An even graph is a graph with vertex degrees

A maximal path in a graph G is a path P in G

Start (The 1st)

Graph with no Hamiltonian

- Can be drawn in many ways

However, important families of graphs, the

We will discuss here only about the planar

Easy to visualize, in fact, choosing of edges is the main

Problem (Computation problem):

There are so many crossings: O(n2)

Disconnected graph, 1- degree vertices, multi-

A subdivision H of a graph G is obtained from G by a sequence

- It can be shown that a graph is planar if and only if its

Assume that the claim is true for all plane embeddings

Let e G be an edge that is not a bridge.

Corollary: Let G be a planar graph. Then every plane

Corollary: There are only 5 regular convex

Processing a vertex = scanning its adjacency list

An undirected graph One possible One possible

Kruskals algorithm: Start with no nodes or edges in the

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