Biological Molecules

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Giant Molecules - Polymers
Large molecules
are called polymers
Polymers are built
from smaller
molecules called
monomers

Biologists call
them
macromolecules
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Examples of Polymers
Proteins

Lipids

Carbohydrates

Nucleic Acids

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Most Macromolecules are Polymers

Polymers are made by stringing together

many smaller molecules called monomers

Nucleic Acid
Monomer

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Linking Monomers
Cells link monomers by a process
called dehydration synthesis
(removing a molecule of water)

Remove
H

H2O Forms

Remove OH

This process joins two sugar monomers

to make a double sugar

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Breaking Down Polymers
Cells break down
macromolecules
by a process
called
hydrolysis
(adding a
molecule of
water)
Water added to split a double sugar

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Macromolecules in Organisms

There are four categories of large

molecules in cells:
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins

Nucleic Acids

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Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates include:
Small sugar molecules
in soft drinks
Long starch molecules
in pasta and potatoes

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 Monosaccharides:
Called simple sugars
Include glucose,
fructose, & galactose

Have the same

chemical, but
different structural
formulas
C6H12O6

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Monosaccharides
Glucose is found in
sports drinks
Fructose is found
in fruits
Honey contains
both glucose &
fructose
Galactose is called
milk sugar

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Isomers
Glucose &
fructose are
isomers
because
theyre
structures are
different, but
their chemical
formulas are
the same

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Rings
In aqueous (watery) solutions,
monosaccharides form ring structures

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Cellular Fuel

Monosaccharides
are the main
fuel that cells
use for cellular
work

ATP

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Disaccharides
A disaccharide is a
double sugar

Theyre made by
joining two
monosaccharides

Involves removing
a water molecule
(dehydration)
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Disaccharides

Common disaccharides include:

Sucrose (table sugar)

Lactose (Milk Sugar)
Maltose (Grain sugar)
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Disaccharides
Sucrose is composed
of glucose + fructose

Maltose is
composed of 2
glucose molecules

Lactose is made
of galactose +
glucose GLUCOSE

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Polysaccharides
Complex
carbohydrates
Composed of many
sugar monomers
linked together
Polymers of
monosaccharide
chains

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Examples of Polysaccharides
Glucose Monomer

Starch

Glycogen

Cellulose

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Starch
Starch is an example of a
polysaccharide in plants

Plant cells store starch

for energy

Potatoes and grains are

major sources of starch
in the human diet

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 Glycogen
Glycogen is an example
of a polysaccharide
in animals

Animals store excess

sugar in the form of
glycogen
Glycogen is similar in
structure to starch

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Cellulose
Cellulose is the most abundant organic
compound on Earth
It forms cable-like fibrils in the
tough walls that enclose plants

It is a major component of
wood
It is also known as dietary fiber

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Cellulose

SUGARS
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Dietary Cellulose
Most animals cannot derive nutrition
from fiber
They have
bacteria in
their digestive
tracts that can
break down
cellulose

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Sugars in Water
Simple sugars and double sugars dissolve
readily in water WATER
MOLECULE

They are
hydrophilic,
or water-
loving

SUGAR
MOLECULE

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Lipids
Lipids are hydrophobic water fearing
Do NOT mix with water

Includes
fats,
waxes,
steroids,
& oils

FAT MOLECULE

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Function of Lipids
Fats store energy, help to insulate the
body, and cushion and protect organs

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Types of Fatty Acids
Unsaturated fatty acids have less than
the maximum number of hydrogens
bonded to the carbons (a double bond
between carbons)

Saturated fatty acids have the

maximum number of hydrogens bonded
to the carbons (all single bonds
between carbons)

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Types of Fatty Acids

Single
Bonds in
Carbon
chain

Double bond in carbon chain

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Triglyceride

Monomer of lipids

Composed of
Glycerol & 3
fatty acid chains

Glycerol forms
the backbone
of the fat
Organic Alcohol

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 Triglyceride

Glycerol Fatty Acid Chains

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Fats in Organisms
Most animal fats have a high proportion
of saturated fatty acids & exist as
solids at room temperature (butter,
margarine, shortening)

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Fats in Organisms
Most plant oils tend to be low in
saturated fatty acids & exist as
liquids at room temperature (oils)

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Fats
Dietary fat consists largely of the
molecule triglyceride composed of
glycerol and three fatty acid chains

Fatty Acid Chain

Glycerol

Dehydration links the fatty acids to Glycerol

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 Steroids
The carbon skeleton
of steroids is bent
to form 4 fused
rings Cholesterol

Cholesterol is
the base Estrogen
steroid from Testosterone

which your body

produces other
steroids
Estrogen & testosterone are also steroids

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Synthetic Anabolic Steroids
They are variants
of testosterone
Some athletes use
them to build up
their muscles quickly

They can pose

serious health risks

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Proteins
Proteins are polymers made of
monomers called amino acids

All proteins are made of 20 different

amino acids linked in different orders

Proteins are used to build cells, act

as hormones & enzymes, and do much
of the work in a cell

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 Four Types of Proteins
Storage

Structural

Contractile

Transport
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20 Amino Acid Monomers

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 Structure of Amino Acids
Amino Carboxyl
Amino acids have a group group
central carbon with
4 things boded to R group
it:
Amino group -NH3
Carboxyl group -COOH

Hydrogen -H Side
groups
Side group -R Serine-hydrophillic
Leucine -hydrophobic

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Linking Amino Acids
Carboxyl
Cells link amino
acids together to Amino
make proteins Side
Group
The process is
called dehydration Dehydration
synthesis Synthesis

Peptide bonds
form to hold the
amino acids
together Peptide Bond
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Proteins as Enzymes
Many proteins act as biological catalysts
or enzymes
Thousands of different enzymes exist
in the body
Enzymes control the rate of chemical
reactions by weakening bonds, thus
lowering the amount of activation
energy needed for the reaction

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Enzymes
Enzymes are globular proteins.

Their folded conformation

creates an area known as the
active site.
The nature and arrangement of
amino acids in the active site
make it specific for only one
type of substrate.

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Enzyme + Substrate = Product

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How the Enzyme Works

Enzymes are reusable!!!

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Primary Protein Structure

The primary
structure is
the specific
sequence of
amino acids in
a protein

Amino Acid

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Protein Structures

Secondary protein structures occur

when protein chains coil or fold

When protein chains called polypeptides

join together, the tertiary structure
forms

In the watery environment of a cell,

proteins become globular in their
quaternary structure
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Protein Structures

Hydrogen bond

Pleated sheet
Polypeptide
Amino acid (single subunit)

(a) Primary structure

Hydrogen bond

Alpha helix

(b) Secondary (c) Tertiary

structure structure

(d) Quaternary structure

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Denaturating Proteins
Changes in temperature & pH can
denature (unfold) a protein so it no
longer works
Cooking denatures
protein in eggs

Milk protein separates into

curds & whey when it
denatures

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Changing Amino Acid Sequence
Substitution of one amino acid for
another in hemoglobin causes sickle-cell
disease

2 7. . . 146
1 3 6
4 5
(a) Normal red blood cell Normal hemoglobin

2 7. . . 146
1 3 6
4 5
(b) Sickled red blood cell Sickle-cell hemoglobin

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Nucleic Acids
Store hereditary information
Contain information for making all
the bodys proteins

Two types exist --- DNA &

RNA

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51
Nucleic Acids
Nitrogenous base
(A,G,C, or T)

Nucleic
acids are
polymers of Phosphate
group
Thymine (T)

nucleotides
Sugar
(deoxyribose)
Phosphate

Base
Sugar

Nucleotide
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Bases
Each DNA
nucleotide has one
of the following
bases:
Thymine (T) Cytosine (C)
Adenine (A)
Guanine (G)
Thymine (T)
Cytosine (C)
Adenine (A) Guanine (G)

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Nucleotide Monomers
Backbone

Form long chains Nucleotide

called DNA

Nucleotides are
joined by sugars
& phosphates on
the side
Bases

DNA strand
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DNA

Two strands of
DNA join
together to form
a double helix Base
pair

Double helix

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RNA Ribonucleic Acid
Nitrogenous base

Ribose sugar
(A,G,C, or U)

has an extra
OH or
hydroxyl
group
Uracil

It has the
Phosphate
group

base uracil (U)

instead of
thymine (T) Sugar (ribose)

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Summary of Key Concepts

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Nucleic Acids

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Macromolecules

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Macromolecules

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End

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