STAT Descriptive Stat1

DESCRIPTIVE
STATISTICS
Descriptive Statistic
Descriptive Statistic is used in exploratory data
analysis. It was developed by John Tukey and presented
in his book entitled Exploratory Data Analysis. The
purpose of exploratory data analysis is to enable the
researcher to examine data in order to gain information
about things such as unexplained patterns, the shape of
the distribution, where data value clusters, and the
existence of any gaps in the data that would not be
apparent when using summary statistics.
Two main functions of descriptive statistics:

1. Summarize the data for analysis
2. Present the data using charts and graphs
Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 2
Frequency
Distributions and
Their Graphs
Frequency Distributions
A frequency distribution is a table that shows classes or
intervals of data with a count of the number in each class.
The frequency f of a class is the number of data points in
the class.
Class Frequency, f
14 4
Lower and 58 5
Upper Class 9 12 3 Frequencies
Limits
13 16 4
17 20 2

Frequency Distributions
The class width is the distance between lower (or upper)
limits of consecutive classes.
Class Frequency, f
14 4
51=4 58 5
95=4 9 12 3
13 9 = 4 13 16 4
17 13 = 4 17 20 2
The class width is 4.
The range is the difference between the maximum and

minimum data entries.
Constructing a Frequency Distribution
Guidelines
1. Decide on the number of classes (k) to include. The number of
classes should be between 5 and 20; otherwise, it may be
difficult to detect any patterns. May use the formula, k = N1/2
2. Find the class width or size as follows. Determine the range of
the data, divide the range by the number of classes, and round
up to the nearest value with precision the same as those of the
raw data.
3. Find the class limits. You can use the minimum entry as the
lower limit of the first class. To find the remaining lower limits,
add the class width to the lower limit of the preceding class.
Then find the upper class limits, the lower limit of the next
class minus one unit measure.
4. Make a tally mark for each data entry in the row of the
appropriate class.
5. Count the tally marks to find the total frequency f for each
Example:
The following data represents the ages of 30 students in a
statistics class. Construct a frequency distribution that
has five classes.
Ages of Students
18 20 21 27 29 20
19 30 32 19 34 19
24 29 18 37 38 22
30 39 32 44 33 46
54 49 18 51 21 21
Continued.
Example continued:
1. The number of classes (5) is stated in the problem.
2. The minimum data entry is 18 and maximum entry is

54, so the range is 36. Divide the range by the number
of classes to find the class width.
Class width = 36 = 7.2 Round up to 8.

5
Continued.
Example continued:
3. The minimum data entry of 18 may be used for the
lower limit of the first class. To find the lower class
limits of the remaining classes, add the width (8) to each
lower limit.
The lower class limits are 18, 26, 34, 42, and 50.
The upper class limits are 25, 33, 41, 49, and 57.
4. Make a tally mark for each data entry in the

appropriate class.
5. The number of tally marks for a class is the frequency

for that class.
Continued.
Example continued:
Number of
Ages students
Ages of Students
Class Tally Frequency, f
18 25 13
26 33 8
34 41 4
42 49 3
Check that the
50 57 2 sum equals
the number in
f 30
the sample.

Midpoint
The midpoint of a class is the sum of the lower and upper
limits of the class divided by two. The midpoint is
sometimes called the class mark.
Midpoint = (Lower class limit) + (Upper class limit)

2
Class Frequency, f Midpoint

14 4 2.5
Midpoint = 1 4 5 2.5
2 2

Midpoint
Example:
Find the midpoints for the Ages of Students frequency
distribution.
Ages of Students
Class Frequency, f Midpoint
18 + 25 = 43
18 25 13 21.5
43 2 = 21.5
26 33 8 29.5
34 41 4 37.5
42 49 3 45.5
50 57 2 53.5
f 30
Relative Frequency
The relative frequency of a class is the portion or
percentage of the data that falls in that class. To find the
relative frequency of a class, divide the frequency f by the
sample size n.
Class frequency

f
Relative frequency =
Sample size n
Relative
Class Frequency, f
Frequency
14 4 0.222
f 18
Relative frequency f 4 0.222
n 18
Relative Frequency
Example:
Find the relative frequencies for the Ages of Students
frequency distribution.
Relative Portion of
Class Frequency, f Frequency students
18 25 13 0.433 f 13
26 33 8 0.267 n 30
34 41 4 0.133 0.433
42 49 3 0.1
50 57 2 0.067
f
1
f 30
n
Cumulative Frequency
The cumulative frequency of a class is the sum of the
frequency for that class and all the previous classes.
Ages of Students
Cumulative
Class Frequency, f Frequency
18 25 13 13
26 33 +8 21
34 41 +4 25
42 49 +3 28
Total number
50 57 +2 30 of students
f 30

Frequency Histogram
A frequency histogram is a bar graph that represents
the frequency distribution of a data set.
1. The horizontal scale is quantitative and measures
the data values.
2. The vertical scale measures the frequencies of the
classes.
3. Consecutive bars must touch.
Class boundaries are the numbers that separate the
classes without forming gaps between them.
The horizontal scale of a histogram can be marked with
either the class boundaries or the midpoints.
Class Boundaries
Example:
Find the class boundaries for the Ages of Students frequency
distribution.
Ages of Students
Class
Class Frequency, f Boundaries
The distance from 18 25 13 17.5 25.5
the upper limit of
the first class to the 26 33 8 25.5 33.5
lower limit of the 34 41 4 33.5 41.5
second class is 1.
42 49 3 41.5 49.5
Half this 50 57 2 49.5 57.5
distance is 0.5.
f 30

Frequency Histogram
Example:
Draw a frequency histogram for the Ages of Students
frequency distribution. Use the class boundaries.
14 13 Ages of Students
12
10
8
8
f 6
4
4 3
2 2
0
17.5 25.5 33.5 41.5 49.5 57.5
Broken axis
Age (in years)
Frequency Polygon
A frequency polygon is a line graph that emphasizes the
continuous change in frequencies.
14
Ages of Students
12
10
8 Line is extended
to the x-axis.
f 6
4
2
0
13.5 21.5 29.5 37.5 45.5 53.5 61.5
Broken axis
Age (in years) Midpoints

Relative Frequency Histogram
A relative frequency histogram has the same shape and
the same horizontal scale as the corresponding frequency
histogram.
0.5
0.433
(portion of students)
Relative frequency
0.4 Ages of Students

0.3
0.267
0.2
0.133
0.1
0.1 0.067
0
17.5 25.5 33.5 41.5 49.5 57.5
Age (in years)
Cumulative Frequency Graph
A cumulative frequency graph or ogive, is a line graph
that displays the cumulative frequency of each class at
its upper class boundary.
30 Ages of Students
Cumulative frequency
(portion of students)
24
18
The graph ends
at the upper
12 boundary of the
last class.
6
0
17.5 25.5 33.5 41.5 49.5 57.5
Age (in years)
More Graphs and
Displays
Goals of Graphing
1. Presentation of Descriptive Statistics
2. Presentation of Evidence
3. Some people understand subject

matter better with visual aids
4. Provide a sense of the underlying data

generating process (scatter-plots)

Stem-and-Leaf Plot
In a stem-and-leaf plot, each number is separated into a
stem (usually the entrys leftmost digits) and a leaf (usually
the rightmost digit). This is an example of exploratory data
analysis.
Example:
The following data represents the ages of 30 students in a
statistics class. Display the data in a stem-and-leaf plot.
Ages of Students
18 20 21 27 29 20
19 30 32 19 34 19
24 29 18 37 38 22
30 39 32 44 33 46
54 49 18 51 21 21 Continued.
Stem-and-Leaf Plot
Ages of Students
Key: 1|8 = 18
1 888999
2 0011124799 Most of the values lie
3 002234789 between 20 and 39.
4 469
5 14
This graph allows us to see
the shape of the data as well
as the actual values.

Stem-and-Leaf Plot
Example:
Construct a stem-and-leaf plot that has two lines for each
stem.
Ages of Students
1 Key: 1|8 = 18
1 888999
2 0011124
2 799
3 002234
3 789 From this graph, we can
4 4 conclude that more than 50%
4 69 of the data lie between 20
5 14 and 34.
5
Notes:
1. The leaf should be arranged in the ascending

order.
2. If the data values are decimal numbers, then
include the decimal point with the stem. For
example, for the value 7.8, the stem will be 7. ,
and the leaf will be 8.
3. Before making the stem and leaf plot, rounds
the decimal number to one or two decimal
places.
Dot Plot
In a dot plot, each data entry is plotted, using a point,
above a horizontal axis.
Example:
Use a dot plot to display the ages of the 30 students in the
statistics class.
Ages of Students
18 20 21 27 29 20
19 30 32 19 34 19
24 29 18 37 38 22
30 39 32 44 33 46
54 49 18 51 21 21
Continued.
Dot Plot
Ages of Students
15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 39 42 45 48 51 54 57
From this graph, we can conclude that most of the

values lie between 18 and 32.

Pie Chart
A pie chart is a circle that is divided into sectors that
represent categories. The area of each sector is proportional
to the frequency of each category.
Accidental Deaths in the USA in 2002
Type Frequency
Motor Vehicle 43,500
Falls 12,200
Poison 6,400
Drowning 4,600
Fire 4,200
Ingestion of Food/Object 2,900
(Source: US Dept. Firearms 1,400 Continued.
of Transportation)
Pie Chart
To create a pie chart for the data, find the relative frequency
(percent) of each category.
Relative
Type Frequency
Frequency
Motor Vehicle 43,500 0.578
Falls 12,200 0.162
Poison 6,400 0.085
Drowning 4,600 0.061
Fire 4,200 0.056
Ingestion of Food/Object 2,900 0.039
Firearms 1,400 0.019
n = 75,200
Continued.
Pie Chart
Next, find the central angle. To find the central angle,
multiply the relative frequency by 360.
Relative
Type Frequency Angle
Frequency
Motor Vehicle 43,500 0.578 208.2
Falls 12,200 0.162 58.4
Poison 6,400 0.085 30.6
Drowning 4,600 0.061 22.0
Fire 4,200 0.056 20.1
Ingestion of Food/Object 2,900 0.039 13.9
Firearms 1,400 0.019 6.7
Continued.
Pie Chart
Ingestion Firearms
3.9% 1.9%
Fire
5.6%
Drowning
6.1%
Poison
8.5% Motor
vehicles
Falls 57.8%
16.2%

Pie Charts:
Proportions of Donut-Eating Professors by Weight Class
130-150
151-185
186-210
211-240
241-270
271-310
311+
34

Actually, why not use a donut
graph.
Proportions of Donut-Eating Professors by Weight Class
130-150
151-185
186-210
211-240
241-270
271-310
311+
35
See Excel for other options!!!!
Pareto Chart
A Pareto chart is a vertical bar graph is which the height of
each bar represents the frequency. The bars are placed in
order of decreasing height, with the tallest bar to the left.
Accidental Deaths in the USA in 2002
Type Frequency
Motor Vehicle 43,500
Falls 12,200
Poison 6,400
Drowning 4,600
Fire 4,200
Ingestion of Food/Object 2,900
(Source: US Dept. Firearms 1,400 Continued.
of Transportation)
Pareto Chart
Accidental Deaths
45000
40000
35000
30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
Poison
Motor Falls Poison Drowning Fire Firearms

Vehicles Ingestion of
Food/Object

Scatter Plot
When each entry in one data set corresponds to an entry in
another data set, the sets are called paired data sets.
In a scatter plot, the ordered pairs are graphed as points

in a coordinate plane. The scatter plot is used to show the
relationship between two quantitative variables.
The following scatter plot represents the relationship

between the number of absences from a class during the
semester and the final grade.
Continued.
Scatter Plot
Absences Grade
Final 100 x y
grade 90 8 78
(y) 80 2 92
5 90
70
12 58
60 15 43
50 9 74
40
6 81
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Absences (x)
From the scatter plot, you can see that as the number of
absences increases, the final grade tends to decrease.
Times Series Chart
A data set that is composed of quantitative data entries
taken at regular intervals over a period of time is a time
series. A time series chart is used to graph a time series.
Example:
The following table lists Month Minutes
the number of minutes January 236
Robert used on his cell
February 242
phone for the last six
months. March 188
April 175
Construct a time series May 199
chart for the number of June 135
minutes used.
Continued.
Times Series Chart
Roberts Cell Phone Usage
250
200
Minutes
150
100
50
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May June
Month

Numerical Methods For Describing Data
The chief advantage to using a graphical method to

represent the data is its visual representation.
Many times, however, we are restricted to
reporting the data verbally, thus no use of
graphical method is made.
The greatest disadvantage to a graphical method of

describing data is its unsuitability for making
inferences, our main goal.

Presumably, we use the sample histogram to make
inferences about the shape and position of the
population histogram, which describes the
unknown population to us.
Our inferences are based upon the correct
assumption that some degree of similarity will
exist between sample and population histograms,
but we are then faced with the problem of
measuring the degree of similarity.

The limitations of the graphical method of
describing data can be overcome by the use of
numerical descriptive measures. In this, we use the
sample data to calculate a set of numbers that will
convey a good mental picture of the frequency
distribution and can be useful in making inferences
concerning the unknown population.
Definition:
Numerical descriptive measures computed from the
population measurements are called Parameters,
those computed from the sample data are called
Statistics.
Descriptive Statistics
Measures of Central Tendency

Measures of Position
Measures of Dispersion
Measures of Symmetry
Measures of Peakedness

Measures of
Central Tendency
The central tendency is measured by averages.

These describe the point about which the
various observed values cluster.
A measure of central tendency is a value that
represents a typical, or central, entry of a data set.
In mathematics, an average, or central tendency
of a data set refers to a measure of the "middle"
or "expected" value of the data set.

Arithmetic Mean
Geometric Mean
Weighted Mean
Harmonic Mean
Median
Mode
Midrange

Arithmetic Mean
The arithmetic mean is the sum of a set of observations,

positive, negative or zero, divided by the number of
observations.
Population mean: x Sample mean: x x

N n
mu x-bar

Mean
Example:
The following are the ages of all seven employees of a
small company:
53 32 61 57 39 44 57
Calculate the population mean.
x 343 Add the ages and

N 7 divide by 7.
49 years
The mean age of the employees is 49 years.

Arithmetic Mean of Group Data
The mean of a group data sample is approximated by
x (x f ) Note that n f
n
where x and f are the midpoints and frequencies of the classes.
Example:
The following frequency distribution represents the ages
of 30 students in a statistics class. Find the mean of the
frequency distribution.

Arithmetic Mean of Group Data
Class midpoint
Class x f (x f )
18 25 21.5 13 279.5
26 33 29.5 8 236.0
34 41 37.5 4 150.0
42 49 45.5 3 136.5
50 57 53.5 2 107.0
n = 30 = 909.0
x (x f )
909 30.3
n 30
The mean age of the students is 30.3 years.
Geometric Mean
Geometric mean is defined as the positive root of the

product of observations. Symbolically,
G ( x1 x 2 x 3 x n ) 1/ n
It is also often used for a set of numbers whose values

are meant to be multiplied together or are exponential in
nature, such as data on the growth of the human
population or interest rates of a financial investment.
Find geometric mean of rate of growth: 34, 27, 45, 55, 22,
34
Geometric Mean of Group Data
If the n non-zero and positive variate-values

x1 , x 2 ,........, x n occur f1 , f 2 ,......., f n times, respectively,
then the geometric mean of the set of
observations is defined by:
1
n fi
1
xi
N
G x1 x 2 x n
f1 f2 fn N
i 1
n
N fi
Where i 1

Geometric Mean (Revised Eqn.)
Ungroup Data Group Data
G ( x1 x2 x3 xn ) G ( x1 f1 x2 f 2 x3 f 3 xn )
1 n 1

n
G AntiLog
N
Log xi

G AntiLog
N f i Log xi

i 1 i 1

Harmonic Mean
Harmonic mean (formerly sometimes called

the subcontrary mean) is one of several kinds
of average.
Typically, it is appropriate for situations when

the average of rates is desired. The harmonic
mean is the number of variables divided by the
sum of the reciprocals of the variables. Useful
for ratios such as speed (=distance/time) etc.

Harmonic Mean
The harmonic mean H of the positive real

numbers x1,x2, ..., xn is defined to be
Ungroup Data Group Data
n n
H H n
n

1 fi
xi i 1
xi
i 1

Exercise-1: Find the Arithmetic ,
Geometric and Harmonic Mean
Class Frequency x fx f Log x f/x
(f)
20-29 3 24.5 73.5 4.17 8.17
30-39 5 34.5 172.5 7.69 6.9
40-49 20 44.5 890 32.97 2.23
50-59 10 54.5 545 17.37 5.45
60-69 5 64.5 322.5 9.05 12.9
Sum N=43 2003.5 71.24 35.64

Weighted Mean
The Weighted Mean of the positive real numbers

x1,x2, ..., xn with their weight w1,w2, ..., wn is
defined to be
w x
i 1
i i
x n
w
i 1
i

Weighted Mean
Example:
Grades in a statistics class are weighted as follows:

Tests are worth 50% of the grade, homework is worth 30% of the
grade and the final is worth 20% of the grade. A student receives a
total of 80 points on tests, 100 points on homework, and 85 points
on his final. What is his current grade?

Weighted Mean
Begin by organizing the data in a table.
Source Score, x Weight, w xw

Tests 80 0.50 40
Homework 100 0.30 30
Final 85 0.20 17
x (x w ) 87 0.87
w 100
The students current grade is 87%.

Median
The median of a data set is the value that lies in
the middle of the data when the data set is
ordered. If the data set has an odd number of
entries, the median is the middle data entry. If
the data set has an even number of entries, the
median is the mean of the two middle data
entries.
If n is Odd If n is Even
Me X 1 1
( n 1) M e X n X n
2 2 1
2
2

Median
Example:
Calculate the median age of the seven employees.
53 32 61 57 39 44 57
To find the median, sort the data.
32 39 44 53 57 57 61
The median age of the employees is 53 years.

Median of Group Data
h n
M e Lo F
fo 2
L0 = Lower class boundary of the median
class
h = Width of the median class
f0 = Frequency of the median class
F = Cumulative frequency of the pre-
median class

Steps to find Median of group data
1. Compute the less than type cumulative frequencies.
2. Determine N/2 , one-half of the total number of cases.
3. Locate the median class for which the cumulative
frequency is more than N/2 .
4. Determine the lower limit of the median class. This is
L0.
5. Sum the frequencies of all classes prior to the median
class. This is F.
6. Determine the frequency of the median class. This is
f 0.
7. Determine the class width of the median class. This is
h.
Example-3: Find Median
Age in years Number of births Cumulative number of

births
14.5-19.5 677 677
19.5-24.5 1908 2585
24.5-29.5 1737 4332
29.5-34.5 1040 5362
34.5-39.5 294 5656
39.5-44.5 91 5747
44.5-49.5 16 5763
All ages 5763 -

Mode
The mode of a data set is the data entry or category that
occurs with the greatest frequency. If no entry is repeated,
the data set has no mode. If two entries occur with the
same greatest frequency, each entry is a mode and the
data set is called bimodal.
Example:
Find the mode of the ages of the seven employees.
53 32 61 57 39 44 57
The mode is 57 because it occurs the most times.
An outlier is a data entry that is far removed from the

other entries in the data set.
Mode of Group Data
1
M 0 L1 h
1 2
L1 = Lower boundary of modal class

1 = difference of frequency between
modal class and class before it
2 = difference of frequency between
modal class and class after
H = class interval
Steps of Finding Mode
Find the modal class which has highest

frequency
L0 = Lower class boundary of modal class
h = Interval of modal class
1 = difference of frequency of modal
class and class before modal class
2 = difference of frequency of modal class and
class after modal class

Example -4: Find Mode
Slope Angle Midpoint (x) Frequency (f) Midpoint x

() frequency (fx)
0-4 2 6 12
5-9 7 12 84
10-14 12 7 84
15-19 17 5 85
20-24 22 0 0
Total n = 30 (fx) = 265

Comparing the Mean, Median and Mode
Example:
A 29-year-old employee joins the company and the
ages of the employees are now:
53 32 61 57 39 44 57 29
Recalculate the mean, the median, and the mode. Which measure
of central tendency was affected when this new age was added?
Mean = 46.5 The mean takes every value into account,

but is affected by the outlier.
Median = 48.5
The median and mode are not influenced
by extreme values.
Mode = 57
Note: The Mode is not much used with the numerical data
but mode is the only measure of central tendency that can be
used with qualitative data or data at the nominal level.
Midrange: Midrange is the average of the highest and

lowest value in the data set. Very easy to find, but highly
affected by the extreme values.
29 57
Midrange = 2 = 43

STAT Descriptive Stat1

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DESCRIPTIVE

Two main functions of descriptive statistics:

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 4

The range is the difference between the maximum and

1. The number of classes (5) is stated in the problem.

2. The minimum data entry is 18 and maximum entry is

Class width = 36 = 7.2 Round up to 8.

4. Make a tally mark for each data entry in the

5. The number of tally marks for a class is the frequency

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 10

Midpoint = (Lower class limit) + (Upper class limit)

Class Frequency, f Midpoint

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 11

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 15

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 17

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 19

0.4 Ages of Students

3. Some people understand subject

4. Provide a sense of the underlying data

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 23

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 25

1. The leaf should be arranged in the ascending

From this graph, we can conclude that most of the

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 29

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 33

Proportions of Donut-Eating Professors by Weight Class

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 34

Motor Falls Poison Drowning Fire Firearms

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 37

In a scatter plot, the ordered pairs are graphed as points

The following scatter plot represents the relationship

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 41

The chief advantage to using a graphical method to

The greatest disadvantage to a graphical method of

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 42

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 43

Measures of Central Tendency

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 45

The central tendency is measured by averages.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 47

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 48

The arithmetic mean is the sum of a set of observations,

Population mean: x Sample mean: x x

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 49

x 343 Add the ages and

The mean age of the employees is 49 years.

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 50

The mean of a group data sample is approximated by

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 51

Geometric mean is defined as the positive root of the

It is also often used for a set of numbers whose values

If the n non-zero and positive variate-values

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 54

Ungroup Data Group Data

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 55

Harmonic mean (formerly sometimes called

Typically, it is appropriate for situations when

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 56

The harmonic mean H of the positive real

Ungroup Data Group Data

Larson & Farber, Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 3e 57

20-29 3 24.5 73.5 4.17 8.17

30-39 5 34.5 172.5 7.69 6.9